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PROPHECY AND 
THE PROPHETS 

In Their Historical Relations 



By 
FREDERICK CARL EISELEN 

Professor in Garrett Biblical Institute, Evanston, Illinois 




New York: EATON & MAINS 
Cincinnati: JENNINGS & GRAHAM 






Copyright, 1909, by 
EATON & MAINS. 



r • a ; 1 
SEP J 5 : 1909 



■' 



CONTENTS 

Chapter Pace 

Preface 5 

I. Introductory. The Old Testament a Library 

of Books 9 

II. The Nature and Development of Hebrew 

Prophecy 18 

III. Amos 35 

IV. Hosea 52 

V. Isaiah 73 

VI. Micah 116 

VII. Jeremiah 125 

VIII. The Contemporaries of Jeremiah 163 

IX. Ezekiel 186 

X. Isaiah, Chapters Forty to Sixty-six 222 

XI. Haggai and Zechariah 246 

XII. Malachi 272 

XIII. Joel 286 

XIV. Jonah and Daniel 293 

Review Questions 314 

Index 329 



PREFACE 

The past few years have seen a revival of interest in 
the study of the Scriptures. The unique place occupied 
by the Bible as a means of grace throughout the entire 
history of the Christian Church has again come to be 
recognized, and great numbers of old and young have 
taken up its earnest, devout, and systematic study. 
This study is by no means confined to the New Testa- 
ment, for Christians are learning more and more that, 
while they find their loftiest inspiration in the study of 
the life, the character, and the teaching of the Master 
and of his disciples, the Old Testament has not been 
displaced by the New. The early Christians were right 
in placing the Old Testament by the side of the New, 
because the former is of inestimable value, and the 
earnest student soon finds that every part of the book 
is full of teaching that is of practical value even in the 
twentieth century A. D. 

In this age, when the responsibility of the individual 
Christian and of the Christian Church toward the 
practical, social, religious, and moral problems and 
evils is recognized more than at any previous 
time, the prophetic literature is worthy of the most 
careful study on the part of all Christians who recog- 
nize their obligations to their day and generation 
and are willing to meet them. The prophets of old 
met in the strength of God, and at the divine im- 
pulse, the problems and evils of their day and genera- 

5 



6 PREFACE 

tion. They had to face the problems arising from the 
spirit of materialism and commercialism, the evils 
resulting from the accumulation of wealth, power, and 
resources in the hands of a few, the cruelty and arro- 
gance of the rich proprietors, and corruption both in 
government and in the administration of justice. They 
had to grapple with a cold, heartless formalism, that 
threatened to destroy pure, spiritual religion. Against 
these and similar evils and wrongs the prophets of old 
raised their hands and voices. The truths proclaimed 
then are the truths needed to-day. Surely it is a part 
of our duty as Christians, as American citizens, to do 
our share toward a Christian solution of the social and 
religious problems of our age. We can hardly claim 
to have reached the full stature of Christian manhood 
and womanhood until we have acquired the knowledge 
and power to cope with these difficulties in the spirit of 
the Master and with the methods best adapted to the 
Christianizing of modern society. In these our efforts 
to lift humanity nearer to God we may learn much 
from the prophets of old. 

The book now sent forth is intended to be an aid 
toward a better appreciation of the prophetic books 
and the prophetic teaching. Its study is in no sense 
to take the place of a study of the biblical books 
themselves; it is rather to serve as an introduction to 
these books and a guide to lead to the more impor- 
tant truths taught by the prophets. In preparing the 
book the author has had in mind especially adult Bible 
classes in the Sunday school or young people's organiza- 
tions. However, it may be useful also as a basis of 
study in college and seminary classes studying the Old 
Testament in English, and to individual readers and 



PREFACE 7 

students who desire to acquire a knowledge of the per- 
manent lessons taught in the prophetic books. 

At the close of the book the author has added nu- 
merous Review Questions covering each chapter, 
which, he trusts, may be of assistance to teachers and 
students. At first he planned to suggest also topics 
for further investigation, but he desisted, thinking 
that it would be more profitable to concentrate the 
study upon the topics covered in the text and such spe- 
cial investigations as might naturally arise from the 
discussion in class. 

It is not possible to discuss in one small volume all 
the questions, critical or otherwise, which present 
themselves to the student of Hebrew prophecy. There- 
fore, for the benefit of any, especially of the leaders of 
Bible classes, who may desire to pursue a more exhaust- 
ive study of the prophetic writings, the following are 
suggested as books adapted to the needs of students of 
the English Bible: 



L. W. Batten, The Hebrew Prophet. The Macmillan Co., 

New York, 1905. 
A. F. Kirkpatrick, The Doctrine of the Prophets. Macmillan 

& Co., London, 1897. 
C. F. Kent, The Kings and Prophets of Israel and Judah 

(Historical Bible, III). Charles Scribner's Sons, New 

York, 1909. 
John Skinner, The Book of the Prophet Isaiah (Cambridge 

Bible). 2 vols. The University Press, Cambridge, 1900. 
O. C. Whitehouse, Isaiah (New Century Bible), 2 vols. Henry 

Frowde, New York, 1905. 
G. A. Smith, The Book of Isaiah (Expositor's Bible). 2 vols. 

A. C. Armstrong & Son, New York, 1890. 
S. R. Driver, The Book of the Prophet Jeremiah. Charles 

Scribner's Sons, New York, 1906. 



8 PREFACE 

C. R. Brown, The Book of the Prophet Jeremiah. American 

Baptist Publication Society, Philadelphia, 1907. 
A. B. Davidson, The Book of Ezekiel (Cambridge Bible). The 

University Press, Cambridge, 1893. 
W. F. Lofthouse, Ezekiel (New Century Bible). Henry 

Frowde, New York. 
S. R. Driver, The Book of Daniel (Cambridge Bible). The 

University Press, Cambridge, 1900. 
C. M. Cobern, Ezekiel and Daniel (Whedon Commentary). 

Eaton & Mains, New York, 1901. 

F. C. Eiselen, The Minor Prophets (Whedon Commentary). 

Eaton & Mains, New York, 1907. 
S. R. Driver and R. F. Horton, The Minor Prophets (New Cen- 
tury Bible). 2 vols. Henry Frowde, New York, 1906. 

G. A. Smith, The Book of the Twelve Prophets (Expositor's 

Bible). 2 vols. A. C. Armstrong & Son, New York, 
1896-98. 

Frederick Carl Eiselen. 

Garrett Biblical Institute, Evanston, 111. 



CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTORY 

THE OLD TESTAMENT A LIBRARY OF 
BOOKS 

CONTENTS OF THE OLD TESTAMENT 

What is the Bible? The Bible may be described 
as a collection of books written during a period of more 
than a thousand years, in which men moved by the 
Divine Spirit have recorded and preserved their con- 
ceptions and interpretations of God's revelations of 
himself, his will and redemptive purpose for the hu- 
man race. The word Bible is derived from the Greek. 
It is the plural of a noun biblion, which means little 
book. In the Latin this plural came to be regarded as 
a singular, biblia, meaning book. This singular noun 
was early adopted into the language of the Western 
Church, and it is used as such even now in the languages 
of modern Europe. But the Bible can never be rightly 
appreciated unless it is borne in mind that it is not so 
much one book as a library consisting of many books. 
Altogether there are sixty-six separate writings in the 
collection as found in the English translations with 
which we are most familiar. Of these, twenty-seven 
belong to the New Testament, the remaining thirty- 
nine to the Old Testament. 

The Books contained in the English Old Testament. 
The Old Testament is that portion of the Bible which 
originated, in the manner suggested, among the He- 
brews during the period preceding the perfect revelation 

9 



io PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

of God in Jesus the Christ, and which was taken over 
from the Jews by the Christians. The thirty-nine 
books are usually grouped as follows: 

I. Law: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, 

Deuteronomy 5 books 

II. History: Joshua, Judges, Ruth, First and 
Second Samuel, First and Second Kings, 
First and Second Chronicles, Ezra, Nehe- 
miah, Esther 12 books 

III. Poetry: Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, 

Song of Songs 5 books 

IV. Prophecy: (1) The Major Prophets: Isaiah, 

Jeremiah, Lamentations, Ezekiel, Daniel. . . 5 books 
(2) The Minor Prophets: Hosea, Joel, Amos, 
Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, 
Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi. ... 12 books 

Total 39 books 

Differences between the English and Hebrew Old 
Testaments. With the exception of a few portions 
which are in Aramaic these books were written originally 
in the Hebrew language, from which the modern Eng- 
lish translations have been made. But when compared 
with the Hebrew Bible the English Old Testament is 
found to show differences in the arrangement and the 
total number of books. In these two points, as also in 
the names of the books, the English Bible follows the 
Latin translation of Jerome, called Vulgate, which 
served as the basis of the early English translations. 
The Vulgate, in turn, is dependent in these things upon 
the early Greek translation called Septuagint, made 
from the Hebrew during the last three pre-Christian 
centuries. 

Contents of the Hebrew Old Testament. The He- 



THE OLD TESTAMENT A LIBRARY n 

brew Bible contains all the books enumerated above, 
but as a result of various combinations the total number 
is much smaller. The common editions contain twenty- 
four books; some ancient traditions speak of twenty- 
two, which is the number of letters in the Hebrew 
alphabet; others, of twenty-seven. The twenty-four 
books are arranged in three divisions : 

I. Law: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, 
Deuteronomy (the names given here are 
those found in the English Bible, not those 

given to the books by the Jews) 5 books 

II. Prophets: (1) The former prophets, or, the first 
volume of prophets: Joshua, Judges, Sam- 
uel, Kings 4 books 

(2) The latter prophets, or, the second volume 
of prophets: Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, The 

Twelve (Minor Prophets) 4 books 

III. Writings: Commonly called Hagiographa, that 
is, Sacred Writings: Ruth, Psalms, Job, 
Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, 
Lamentations, Daniel, Esther, Ezra, Chron- 
icles 11 books 

Total 24 books 

Growth of the Old Testament Canon. The three 
divisions mark, in all probability, three stages in the 
formation of the Old Testament canon. At first the 
Law was canonized, during the closing years of the 
fifth century B. C, then the Prophets, between about 
250 and 200 B. C, and finally the Writings , before the 
opening of the Christian era. 

DIFFERENT KINDS OF LITERATURE IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

"In Divers Portions." The writer of the Epistle to 
the Hebrews says that during the Old Testament dis- 



12 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

pensation God spake "in divers portions and in divers 
manners." The former expression means that the 
revelations recorded in the Old Testament were not 
given at one time, through one channel, or by one man, 
but at many times, through many channels, and by 
many men, scattered over a period of many centuries, 
in places hundreds of miles apart. One result of this is 
seen in the fact that the Old Testament contains many 
books written by many different authors in different 
periods of Hebrew history. 

"In Divers Manners." The expression "in divers 
manners" touches upon the different kinds of literature 
found in the Old Testament, but it goes deeper than 
mere literary form. It means that, in giving revelations 
of himself during the Old Testament period, God used 
various methods and means; the different kinds of 
literature being simply the outgrowth of the various 
modes of revelation. It is a universal Christian belief 
that God reveals himself to-day in divers manners and 
modes. Every Christian believes, for example, that 
God reveals himself in the events of history, be it the 
history of individuals or of nations. Sometimes the 
voice may be almost inaudible, at other times it sounds 
like the roar of thunder. Again, to many devout per- 
sons, God speaks very distinctly through the outward 
acts of worship. To thousands of earnest and sincere 
Christians connected with churches using an elaborate 
ritual this ritual is not mere form, it is a means of 
blessing and grace through which God reveals himself 
to their souls. Moreover, God selects certain persons, 
especially well qualified to hear his voice; these he 
commissions as ambassadors to declare him and his 
will to the people. The belief in this method of re vela- 



THE OLD TESTAMENT A LIBRARY 13 

tion is the philosophical basis for the offices of the 
Christian preacher and Christian religious teacher. 
The difference between the two is that the former ap- 
peals primarily to the conscience, the latter to the in- 
tellect, and then by way of the intellect to the conscience. 
Once more, in his attempt to reach the human heart 
God may dispense with all external means ; he may and 
does reveal himself by working directly upon the mind 
and spirit of the individual. 

God's Revelations during the Old Testament Period. 
These are some of the "manners" in which God re- 
veals himself to his children to-day, and these are some 
of the means and manners in which God made himself 
known during the Old Testament dispensation. Then, 
as now, he revealed himself in nature, in the events 
of history, in the ritual, and by direct impressions; 
then, as now, he selected certain individuals to whom 
he might make himself known in all these various ways, 
and who could transmit the revelations to others. The 
Old Testament contains records and interpretations of 
these manifold revelations. 

The Human Agents who Assisted God during the 
Old Testament Period. We are informed by the book 
itself who were the principal agents to mediate, inter- 
pret, or record the revelations granted to the chosen 
people or to individuals during the period preceding 
the fullness of time when God might grant a revelation, 
complete and universal, in and through his Son. In 
Jer. 18. 18, part of which reads, "For the law shall not 
perish from the priest, nor counsel from the wise, nor 
the word from the prophet," three of these agents are 
mentioned, the prophets, the priests, and the wise men. 
To these should be added the sweet singers, the psalmists 



14 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

of Israel. These four classes of agents observed the 
various manifestations of God, interpreted them, and 
recorded them in various kinds of literature. 

(i) The Prophetic Literature. The most impor- 
tant part of Old Testament literature is due to prophetic 
activity. The prophets, pure in character, strong in 
intellect, sincere in purpose, quickened through per- 
sonal communion with God, enlightened by the Divine 
Spirit, were able to see facts and understand truths 
hidden from the eyes of those who did not live in the 
same intimate fellowship with Jehovah. These men, 
possessed of divine ideals of righteousness, and eager 
to realize those ideals in their nation, became states- 
men, social reformers, and religious and ethical teachers. 
They, with flaming enthusiasm, sought to impress the 
truths burned by a Divine Spirit upon their hearts and 
minds upon their less enlightened contemporaries. 

With the gradual advance in culture, reading and 
writing became quite universal; then the prophets, 
anxious to appeal to a larger circle and to preserve their 
messages for more willing ears, put their utterances in 
writing, and to this new departure we owe the sublime 
specimens of prophetic literature in the Old Testament. 

(2) The Wisdom Literature. As the prophets re- 
semble the modern preacher, so the wise men resemble 
the modern religious teacher. Both classes of ancient 
workers consisted of men who were qualified to under- 
stand the divine will and purpose and to make it 
known to others. But the wise men did not appeal 
directly to the conscience as did the prophets, but rather 
to the mind through counsel and argument, though 
their ultimate aim was to reach the conscience and 
through it influence conduct and life. The prophet 



THE OLD TESTAMENT A LIBRARY 15 

ordinarily supported his exhortation by appeal to the 
divine authority. He would have said to the indolent 
man, "Thus saith Jehovah, Go to work, thou sluggard." 
Not so the wise man In a simple manner he appealed 
to the ordinary commor. sense, trusting that in this 
wise he would make an impression the effects of which 
would be seen in transformed conduct. The following 
verses (Prov. 24. 30-34) may serve as an illustration: 

I went by the field of the sluggard, 

And by the vineyard of the man void of understanding; 

And, lo, it was all grown over with thorns, 

The face thereof was covered with nettles, 

And the stone wall thereof was broken down. 

Then I beheld, and considered well ; 

I saw, and received instruction: 

Yet a little sleep, a little slumber, 

A little folding of the hands to sleep ; 

So shall thy poverty come as a robber, 

And thy want as an armed man. 

Nothing escaped the observation of these men; and 
from beginning to end they emphasized the impor- 
tant truth that religion and the daily life are insepara- 
ble. From the giving of simple practical precepts they 
rose to speculation, and the Books of Job and Eccle- 
siastes bear witness to the fact that the problems they 
attempted to solve were no mean problems. 

(3) The Devotional Literature. Of profound signifi- 
cance is also the devotional literature of the Old Testa- 
ment, as illustrated, for example, in the Psalter, which 
is characterized most fittingly in the words of Johannes 
Arndt, "What the heart is in man, that is the Psalter 
in the Bible." The devotional literature embodies 
the expressions of devout souls, prophets, priests, wise 



1 6 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

men, kings, and peasants, who came into the very 
presence of God, held communion with him, and were 
privileged to hear the sweet sound of his voice. 

(4) The Priestly Literature. The priests consti- 
tute another important class of religious workers in 
ancient Israel. During the earliest period their prin- 
cipal duty appears to have been the giving of oracle or 
law, but in time the care of the sanctuary with all that 
was involved in this passed into their hands, and dur- 
ing the greater part of the national life of the Hebrews 
their chief functions were the care of the sanctuary 
and the performance of the ceremonial rites ; yet during 
all this time they remained the custodians of the sacred 
law and custom. For centuries these laws and customs 
were probably transmitted by word of mouth, or were 
only partially committed to writing; but at last there 
came a time when convenience and existing conditions 
demanded that they be codified and put into writing; 
and naturally the priests, the guardians of sacred law 
and custom, were called upon to perform this task. 
To this class of religious workers, then, we may trace 
the legal and ceremonial literature. In it they sought 
to interpret the divine revelations given by means of 
precept, commandment, and the object lessons of the 
ritual and ceremonial. 

(5) The Historical Literature Due to Prophetic 
Activity. The historical literature of the Old Testa- 
ment furnishes an interpretation of the movements 
of God in history. The prophet was a preacher of 
righteousness to his day and generation, but his activity 
was not confined to the present. He was the ambassa- 
dor of Jehovah to make known his will concerning the 
past, the present, or the future. Addressing himself 



THE OLD TESTAMENT A LIBRARY 17 

to the present he spoke as a preacher ; when the mes- 
sage concerned the future it took the form of prediction. 
The case might arise, however, that the people failed 
to understand the significance of their own past his- 
tory, and thus failed to receive the proper conception 
of their God and his will. If the lesson was not to be 
lost some one must serve as an interpreter, and who 
would be better qualified to give the right interpretation 
than the prophet? Sometimes he embodied such in- 
terpretations in his discourses, but on a larger scale 
this demand made of him an historian, not for the pur- 
pose of merely recording events, but of interpreting 
them at the same time. To these prophet-historians 
we owe a large portion of the historical literature. 

The Historical Literature Due to Priestly Activity. 
But not all Old Testament history comes from the 
prophets. As already indicated, the legal and cere- 
monial literature may be traced to priestly activity. 
Now, in connection with the recording of the laws, 
customs, institutions, and ceremonial requirements, the 
origin of these laws and institutions became a matter 
of interest and importance. This interest and the de- 
mand for information arising from it led the priests 
also to become historians ; and to these priestly writers 
we are indebted for not a small part of sacred history. 



CHAPTER II 

THE NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT OF 
HEBREW PROPHECY 

Hebrew prophecy has a history. There were a period 
of obscure beginnings, a period of growth and lofty 
achievement, and a period of decline and expiration, 
when other agencies took the place of living prophecy. 

THE BASIS OF HEBREW PROPHECY 

Man a Religious Being. Prophecy is not peculiar 
to the Hebrews. A phenomenon to which the general 
term " prophecy' ' may be given existed among all na- 
tions of antiquity, and is found to-day even among very 
primitive peoples. The ultimate basis of prophecy is to 
be found in the religious nature of man, which causes 
him to reach out toward some kind of a divine being. 
Men everywhere and in all ages have given evidence 
of the possession of certain leligious beliefs or feelings 
more or less clearly defined, which would inevitably 
lead to the institution of some sort of prophetic order 
among them. 

Universal Religious Beliefs Underlying the Phenom- 
enon of Prophecy, i. Man is surrounded by mys- 
terious divine powers. In the course of time these 
various powers may come to be regarded as the mani- 
festations of one single power, which may or may not 
be conceived as possessing the attributes of personality. 
2. This power, or these powers, determine the well- 
being and destiny of men. 3 . If this is true, it becomes 

18 



NATURE OF HEBREW PROPHECY i 9 

a matter of vital concern that men secure the good will 
and f-\vor of these deities; but in order to do this men 
must know the divine will and purpose; this in turn 
makes it necessary for the deities in some way to make 
known their purpose and will. As a result we find every- 
where a belief that the divine power, or powers, seek 
to communicate their will to men. 4. Alongside of this 
is found the_ belief that the deity does not give his com- 
munications indiscriminately ; he reveals himself to cer- 
tain peculiarly qualified individuals, who might transmit 
the revelations to the people in general. These favorite 
persons occupy much the same place among other 
nations as do the prophets among the Hebrews. When- 
ever it became desirable to know the will of the deity, 
men would go to these specially favored persons for 
counsel, either to have them determine the divine will 
or to have them interpret the meaning of some phenome- 
non or happening which the inquirer had experienced, 
and which he thought contained a message from the 
deity. 

Primitive Methods of Determining the Will of the 
Deity. The question arises here, how were these 
"prophets' ' thought to discover the will of their deity 
or deities? Generally speaking, in two ways: 1. The 
external method; 2. The internal method. In the ex- 
ternal method two phases may be distinguished: (1) 
Passive observation of external phenomena; (2) The 
use of definite means to discover the divine will. 

Passive Observation of External Phenomena. In 
this case the prophet put forth no special effort to de- 
termine the will of the deity; he simply observed 
passively certain phenomena, as, for example, the flight 
or cry of the birds, the movements of the clouds, the 



20 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

conjunction of the stars, the formation of the members 
of sacrificial animals, the convulsive movementr of the 
liver or entrails, the rustling of the leaves, and many 
more. Thousands of tablets have been unearthed in the 
ruins of the library of King Ashurbanapal of Assyria, 
which contain interpretations of this kind. As an 
illustration of their character, a few lines may be 
quoted : 

If a woman gives birth to a child with the right ear missing, 

the days of the ruler will be long; 
If a woman gives birth to a child with the left ear missing, 

distress will enter the land and weaken it. 

This method is also reflected in 2 Sam. 5. 24: "And 
it shall be, when thou hearest the sound of marching in 
the tops of the mulberry trees, that then thou shalt 
bestir thyself; for then is Jehovah gone out before 
thee to smite the host of the Philistines." The rustling 
of the mulberry leaves was thought to indicate the will 
of Jehovah. 

Various Efforts to Determine the Will of the Deity. 
There were cases, however, when passive observation 
was thought insufficient; when it was considered 
necessary to put forth definite efforts for the purpose 
of determining the will of the deity. The Old Testament 
contains serveral references to this method of procedure. 
The cup of divination (Gen. 44. 5, 15) must have been 
used in this connection. The most common method, 
however, seems to have been the casting of the lot, 
ordinarily in the form of headless arrows or rods. The 
question was put in a form which made possible the 
simple answer "yes" or "no," "this" or "that." The 
casting of the lot in the case of Jonah is an illustration of 



NATURE OF HEBREW PROPHECY 21 

this method, as also in the case of the election of a suc- 
cessor to Judas. Ezek. 21.21,22 describes the use of the 
same method: ''For the king of Babylon stood at the 
parting of the way, at the head of the two ways, to use 
divination: he shook the arrows to and fro, he con- 
sulted the teraphim, he looked in the liver. In his 
right hand was the divination for Jerusalem, to set 
battering-rams, to open the mouth in the slaughter, to 
lift up the voice with shouting, to set battering-rams 
against the gates, to cast up mounds, to build forts." It 
is seen that in some passages the Old Testament favors 
the use of these primitive methods ; on the other hand, 
there are passages which condemn their use very em- 
phatically, for example, Lev. 19. 26; Num. 23. 23; 
24. 1. 

The Internal Method of Revelation. By the side 
of these external methods of divine revelation there was 
known and practiced the internal method. The deity 
was thought in some way to possess the individual, 
to inspire him, to speak through him. The most 
illustrious example of this in antiquity is the oracle of 
Apollo at Delphi. Here the mediary between Apollo 
and the people was a woman, called Pythia. The pro- 
cedure was as follows: "Having prepared herself by 
washing and purification, the Pythia entered the 
sanctuary, with gold ornaments in her hair, and flowing 
robes upon her; she drank of the water of the fountain 
Cassotis, which flowed into the shrine, tasted the fruit 
of the old bay tree standing in the chamber, and took 
her seat. No one was present but a priest, called the 
propheWs, who explained the words she uttered in her 
ecstasy, and put them into metrical form, generally 
hexameters." It should be noted that in this con- 



22 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

nection the term " prophet" was applied not to the 
one who was thought to receive the message from 
the deity, but to the man who delivered it to the 
people. 

Differences between Hebrew Prophecy and Prophecy 
Outside of Israel. In this belief that the deity pos- 
sessed and spoke through an individual we find the con- 
necting link between "prophecy" outside of Israel and 
prophecy among the Hebrews. But, while there is 
agreement in form, neither can be estimated properly 
if we fail to note the marked differences between the two. 
The chief of these are: i. The nature and character 
of the deity in whose name the oracle was given. If 
the God of the Hebrews is the one true God, surely a 
message delivered in his name is not in the same class 
with one given in the name of a deity that has no real 
existence. 2. Another distinguishing mark is the 
character of the truth or truths proclaimed. The 
utterances of the Hebrew prophets are permeated by 
a spirit absent from the oracles of other nations and 
religions. 3. Another important fact which must not 
be overlooked is the more complete loss of self-con- 
sciousness on the part of the non-Israelitish prophets; 
indeed, during the golden age of Hebrew prophecy, 
references to a state of ecstasy are hardly ever found; 
there was full recognition of conscious, personal inter- 
course between Jehovah and his prophets. 

THE NATURE OF HEBREW PROPHECY 

Meaning of the Term "Prophet." Etymology does 
not aid us in determining the conception implied in the 
Hebrew noun translated prophet; for the root meaning 
of the word is doubtful. However, it is not improba- 



NATURE OF HEBREW PROPHECY 23 

ble that it is connected with a verb found in Arabic in 
the sense of bring forward or announce. Whether it is 
or not, one thing is certain, that in itself it does not 
imply the idea of prediction. While the study of 
etymology may fail to lead to certain results, a con- 
sideration of usage may prove more satisfactory. 
Exod. 7. 1, reads, "And Jehovah said unto Moses, See, 
I have made thee as God to Pharaoh ; and Aaron thy 
brother shall be thy prophet"; and Exod. 4. 16, "And 
he shall be thy spokesman unto the people ; and it shall 
come to pass, that he shall be to thee a mouth, and thou 
shalt be to him as God." These two verses suggest that 
the prophet was looked upon as a man who spoke for or 
in the name of some one, especially in the name of 
the deity. In other words, the Hebrew prophet was 
an ambassador sent to make known the will and purpose 
of Jehovah to the chosen people (Amos 3.7,8). As such 
he spoke for God, and was, therefore, more a forth- 
teller than a foreteller. And yet prediction is not 
excluded ; for God might desire to make known his will 
with reference to the past, the present, or the future; 
in the last case the utterance of the prophet must take 
the form of prediction. 

Names Given to the Prophets in the Old Testament. 
That the contemporaries of the prophets believed them 
to sustain a peculiarly close relation to God is shown 
by the names which they gave to them. The name 
the man of God (1 Sam. 9. 6; 1 Kings 12. 22; Jer. 35. 4) 
occurs quite frequently; another common title is the 
servant of God or of Jehovah (2 Kings 9.751 Kings 14. 18 ; 
18. 36), which implies that the prophets were com- 
missioned to carry out the divine purpose. Once, at 
least, is found the title the interpreter (Isa. 43. 27). As 



24 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

suggested in another connection, God speaks in the 
events of history, and one duty of the prophets is to 
interpret the significance of these events to their con- 
temporaries. 

Comprehensiveness of the Prophetic Interest. If 
the interest of God extends to all affairs of life, it fol- 
lows inevitably that the activity of his representatives 
should be very comprehensive, and as a matter of fact 
we find that the prophets feel constrained to interfere in 
every sphere of life and demand the performance of the 
will of God everywhere. Since, during the early period, 
the individual was almost completely lost sight of, while 
the nation was supreme, it is not strange that in the be- 
ginning, at least, the prophets* teaching should center 
around the nation rather than around the individual. 
They represented Jehovah before the nation, and they 
sought with all their energies to make Israel in very 
truth the people of God. Broadly speaking, we may 
say that the prophets pursued national and religious 
ends; they believed in the national life of Israel and 
fostered it, but they believed still more in the religion of 
Jehovah, and if at any time the national interests came 
in conflict with the religious interests, the prophets 
stood for the latter, though it might involve the destruc- 
tion of the nation. This twofold interest of the prophets 
may be seen from the time of Moses on; and by it 
they are distinguished from the seers who are mentioned 
in the early history of Israel, but who ministered rather 
to personal, private, and temporal wants. It would 
seem that Samuel combined the two offices and marked 
in a sense the transition from the lower to the higher, 
though even before his day prophets of Jehovah had 
appeared. 



NATURE OF HEBREW PROPHECY 25 

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF HEBREW PROPHECY 

The Exodus the Beginning of Hebrew History. 

Israel had no national existence until after the exodus 
from Egypt, hence in this study the period before the 
conquest may be left out of consideration. True, there 
may have been men with prophetic vision and ex- 
perience, but the circumstances were not adapted to a 
prophetic work such as was done by the men whom 
we are accustomed to call prophets. Their activity 
presupposed an organization such as was first instituted 
at the time of the Exodus. 

Moses the First Great Prophet. The first great 
Hebrew prophet was Moses. We are accustomed to 
think of him as a lawgiver and author, but his chief 
glory is rather that he was the first and greatest prophet 
of the Old Testament dispensation. Moses did two 
things: 1. He organized the heterogeneous elements 
into a national unity. 2 . He gave to this unity a prac- 
tical monotheism. In this we see the twofold activity 
which is common to all the prophets, national and 
religious, with the emphasis upon the latter, for the 
basis of the national union was the recognition of 
Jehovah as the one. God of Israel. Certainly in the 
beginning Moses had to do some things which at a 
later time were assigned to separate officials. In 
reality, Moses filled a fourfold office, though he was 
first of all a prophet: (1) He was a prophet, (2) a 
priest, (3) a lawgiver, (4) a political leader. As such 
he laid the foundations for the political, social, and 
religious life of the Hebrews. 

Prophecy During the Period of the Judges. The 
records of the period of the Judges mention only two 
persons as occupying the prophetic office, Deborah, 



26 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

the prophetess (Judg. 4. 4), and an unnamed prophet 
(Judg. 6. 8). Both deserve to be called by the name. 
Deborah was the leader in a great movement for national 
independence, and the national movement had its basis 
in a religious revival; the people were urged to come 
"to the help of Jehovah against the mighty." The 
unnamed prophet also connected national disaster 
with apostasy, and therefore, by implication, national 
prosperity with loyalty to Jehovah. 

Samuel and the Sons of the Prophets. In the days 
of Samuel men called prophets appeared in great 
numbers. During the wars of conquest religion was lost 
sight of again and again; but the religious leaders and 
a minority of the people always recognized that victory 
could be theirs only if they were united, and they knew 
that the only efficient bond of unity was the common 
faith in Jehovah. When the continued successes of the 
Philistines threatened the national life of the Hebrews, 
there arose a group of religious enthusiasts, who preached 
the almost forgotten truth that Jehovah was the 
God of Israel, and in his name they proclaimed a holy 
war against the Philistines. Without leadership these 
"sons of the prophets" could not have accomplished 
anything, but under the direction of Samuel they 
must have played an important role during the Philis- 
tine crisis, which led to the establishment of the mon- 
archy. At the command of God and through the co- 
operation of the prophets Saul became king, and at 
first the prophetic influence of Samuel continued, but 
in time Saul, whose lot was cast with the political and 
military party rather than with the representatives of 
Jehovah, gave evidence that he was unwilling to abide 
by the policy of the religious party. Samuel considered 



NATURE OF HEBREW PROPHECY 27 

this a serious religious danger, and David, "a man after 
God's own heart'," who might be expected to follow the 
prophetic leading, was anointed king. 
Prophecy During the Reigns of David and Solomon. 

During the next few generations the prophets appear 
upon the scene but rarely; but whenever we get a 
glimpse of them they show themselves worthy succes- 
sors of Moses, Deborah, and Samuel, and worthy 
predecessors of Elijah, Amos, Isaiah, and the rest. 
Nathan boldly denounces David (2 Sam. 12. iff.); Gad 
also delivers a message affecting vitally king and peo- 
ple (2 Sam. 24. 1 iff.); Nathan has an important part 
in the crowning of Solomon (1 Kings 1. nff.). 

The Prophets and the Division of the Kingdom. 
The next political event of importance was the division 
of the kingdom subsequent to the death of Solomon, 
and again we find the prophets taking an active interest. 
In accord with their general policy, they favored the 
division (1 Kings 11. 29ft*. ; 12. 220°.), because they were 
convinced that a continuation of the policy of Solomon 
would result in the loss of true religion, and they 
were willing to sacrifice the state, if only the religion 
of Jehovah could be saved. 

The Rise of False Prophecy. The hopes of the 
prophets were not fully realized, for the kings of the 
northern kingdom were by no means all ardent wor- 
shipers of Jehovah. In name he continued to be the 
God of Israel, but the conduct of the kings, who found 
ready imitators among the people, was not such as to 
allay the fears of the zealous Jehovah prophets. An- 
other danger threatened from the rise of false prophecy. 
In the course of the centuries the prophetic office grew in 
influence, and this increase in power became in itself a 



28 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

danger, for it attracted many recruits who were without 
the prophetic spirit, and who became prophets simply 
because the office seemed to assure an easy and com- 
fortable living. These prophets undermined the in- 
fluence of the true prophets and were responsible to a 
large extent for the corrupt practices condemned so 
severely by the later prophets. Two classes of false 
prophets may be distinguished: On the one hand, the 
mercenary prophets, who are described by Micah (3.5) 
in these words: "The prophets that make my people 
to err; that bite with their teeth, and cry, Peace; and 
whoso putteth not into their mouths, they even pre- 
pare war against him." These prophets were following 
the sentiment, "Whose bread I eat, his song I sing." 
On the other hand, there were the political prophets, 
who, unlike the mercenary prophets, may have been 
sincere, but who lost sight of the religious mission and 
destiny of the nation, and whose utterances were 
determined entirely by political ambitions. Both 
classes were a menace to the religion of Jehovah as 
understood by the true prophets. 

The Reign of Ahab and Jezebel. In the days of 
Ahab a test was applied to the prophets which tempo- 
rarily separated the true prophets from the false, and 
led to a new struggle which ended in the triumph of 
Jehovah. Omri and Ahab were two of the greatest 
kings of the northern kingdom. In order to fortify 
his position the former entered into an alliance with the 
king of Tyre, and sealed it by the marriage of his son 
Ahab to Jezebel, the daughter of the king of Tyre. Ahab, 
an energetic king, was religiously indifferent, and 
though there is no indication that he himself at any 
time ceased to worship Jehovah, he showed little 



NATURE OF HEBREW PROPHECY 29 

active interest in the God of his people. Jezebel, on 
the other hand, was a religious zealot, and she soon 
gained many concessions from the king, which gave 
a prominent place to her own god Baal. The great 
mass of the people, seeing the indifference of the king, 
followed the example of her who represented to them, 
by her enthusiasm and zeal, the policy of the court; 
and so did the false prophets, who thought that their 
interests demanded loyalty to the court. To permit 
the worship of another deity by the side of Jehovah in 
Israel was considered treason by the true prophets. 
Something must be done to save the religion of their God. 

The Activity of Elijah and Elisha. The crisis brought 
forth two great representatives of Jehovah, Elijah and 
Elisha, who, each in his own way, boldly and fearlessly 
carried on the struggle, until they finally succeeded in 
driving the hated worship from Israel and the faithless 
dynasty from the throne. Once more the nation came 
to acknowledge Jehovah as its God. Succeeding proph- 
ets still found it necessary to counteract the tendency 
to apostatize from Jehovah, but their chief duty was 
to set in a clearer light the nature and character of 
Jehovah, the God of Israel, and his purpose for the 
nation and mankind. How they did this our study 
of the separate books will show. 

The Hebrew Prophets in Chronological Order. Here 
it may be sufficient to enumerate the canonical prophets 
in their chronological order, and to point out briefly 
the principal theme of each: 

I. The eighth century prophets, or, the prophets of the Assyr- 
ian period. 

1. In Israel: Amos, c. 755; Hosea, c. 750-735. 

2. In Judah: Isaiah, c. 740-700; Micah, c. 735-700. 



30 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

II. The seventh century prophets, or, the prophets of the 
Chaldean period (all in Judah, since the northern 
kingdom disappeared in 722). 

Jeremiah, c. 626-586; Zephaniah, c. 626; Nahum, c. 

608 ; Habakkuk, c. 600. 

III. The prophets of the exile. 

Ezekiel, 593-570; Obadiah, after 586. The author of 
Isa. 4off. speaks from the historical background of 

c 545- 

IV. The prophets after the exile. 

Haggai, 520; Zechariah (the author of chapters 1-8), 
520-518; Malachi, c. 450; Joel, c. 400* the author or 
authors of Zech. 9-14, after 350. 

The Books of Jonah and Daniel. This leaves two 
books which are grouped among the prophetic books 
in the English Old Testament, Jonah and Daniel. The 
book of Jonah centers around a prophet who lived c. 
770 B. C. (2 Kings 14. 25.), but as a literary composition 
it belongs to a much later age, c. 400-250. The Book 
of Daniel is not reckoned among the prophetic books 
in the Jewish canon, but among the Writings. It is 
not a prophetic work in the narrow sense, but belongs 
rather to the apocalyptic literature. In its present 
form it is generally thought to have originated during 
the Maccabean struggles, c. 168 B. C. 

Teaching of the Eighth Century Prophets. The early 
part of the eighth century was a period of marvelous 
prosperity for both Israel and Judah, which, however, 
brought great evils in its train. The religion of Jehovah 
was threatened by two perils: (1) Moral and religious 
corruption, due to a wrong conception of the character 
of Jehovah; (2) The successes of the Assyrians, which 
were to the great mass of people an evidence of the 
superiority of the Assyrian deities, and might lead to 



NATURE OF HEBREW PROPHECY 31 

apostasy from Jehovah. Either threatened the very- 
life of Jehovah religion. All four prophets of the eighth 
century were convinced that the only remedy was a 
right conception of the nature and character of their 
God; and this they proceeded to supply. (1) All em- 
phasized the universality of the divine sway, and de- 
clared that the successes of the Assyrians were due not 
to Jehovah's weakness, but to the people's sins, which 
compelled Jehovah to send judgment upon them; and 
he selected the Assyrians as executioners of his judg- 
ment. (2) All sought to impress upon the people a 
more adequate conception of the character of Jehovah, 
each emphasizing that phase of the divine character 
which he considered best adapted to his day and genei- 
ation. Amos laid special stress upon the righteousness 
of Jehovah, Hosea upon his love, Isaiah upon his holiness 
and majesty, Micah upon the divine judgments. Of the 
four, Isaiah was the greatest. His statesmanship is 
worthy of note. 

Activity of the Seventh Century Prophets. During 
the religious reaction under Manasseh and Amon the 
voice of prophecy was not heard. But when Josiah, who 
seems to have been under prophetic influence from the 
beginning, came to the throne, in 639, a brighter day 
dawned. Jeremiah was the prophet of the fall of Jeru- 
salem. At first he attempted reforms, hoping that the 
nation might yet be saved. When he saw that the 
doom of the nation was inevitable, he sought to save 
religion by separating it from the state and other 
external institutions, and emphasizing its individual 
and spiritual aspects. He also sought to encourage 
the troubled saints by promises of a glorious restoration. 
Zephaniah pronounced a message of judgment upon the 



32 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

whole world, especially upon Judah and Jerusalem. 
Nahum was the prophet of Nineveh's downfall. Hab- 
akkuk boldly questioned the justice of God in permitting 
the wicked Jews to oppress their righteous countrymen 
and the godless Chaldeans to execute judgment upon 
the more righteous Jews. 

Activity of the Prophets of the Exile. Obadiah 
prophesied soon after the fall of Jerusalem. He con- 
demns the Edomites for their participation in the 
overthrow of the city. Ezekiel was carried into exile 
in 597 and began his prophetic ministry in 593. Down 
to 586 his chief aim was to destroy the false hopes of the 
first exiles, who expected to be restored to their own 
land in a short time. After the fall of the city his sole 
ambition was to maintain and develop among the exiles 
a deep spiritual religion, in order that they might be 
prepared for the return when the proper time would 
arrive. Convinced of the certainty of a future restora- 
tion, he mapped out a scheme for the establishment 
of a religious community in the holy land. 

Toward the close of the period of exile the captives 
received encouragement from the prophecies con- 
tained in Isa. 4ofL, which were intended to prepare the 
Jews for the return. 

Activity of the Prophets After the Exile. Haggai 
and Zechariah were contemporaries. They worked 
chiefly for the rebuilding of the temple, and in this 
they were successful. The ministry of Malachi is 
connected with the reform movement under Ezra and 
Nehemiah. He condemns the faithlessness of the 
priests, the neglect of the temple service, the non- 
payment of tithes, divorces, and the marrying of 
foreign women. Joel urges a sincere return to Jehovah, 



NATURE OF HEBREW PROPHECY 33 

in order to escape the terrors of the day of Jehovah, 
a foreshadowing of which he sees in a terrible plague 
of locusts. Th^ author of the Book of Jonah teaches 
the universality of the love of God, and thus seeks to 
counteract the narrow exclusiveness of the postexilic 
Judaism. The author of Daniel means to encourage 
the troubled Jews of the Maccabean period. 

Decline and Extinction of Prophecy. The golden 
age of Hebrew prophecy was from Amos to Jeremiah; 
with Ezekiel began the period of decline, which con- 
tinued until living prophecy gave way to other 
agencies of instruction. The reasons for this decline 
can easily be seen: i. Early in the postexilic period 
the ultimate authority was placed in the written law, 
which sought to lay down rules meeting every ex- 
perience of life. The prophets were succeeded by the 
scribes, whose duty it was to expound that which was 
written. 2. The great prophets had covered the entire 
field of theology and morals; and the new demand 
was for men who could systematize these truths and 
teach them to the people. This in itself would not do 
away with prophetic experience; but with the law as 
ultimate criterion, instead of a living union with God, 
the danger was very real, and subsequent events show 
that the religious teachers yielded to the temptation. 
3. A third reason which must have exerted some in- 
fluence was the destruction of the national life. The 
nation was the subject of the great prophetic utterances. 
When the nation was gone the task of the prophet 
was in part done. The readjustment was along legal 
and ceremonial lines, which crowded out the prophets. 

Jesus and the Prophets. The voice of Hebrew 
prophecy was silenced, bui the truth proclaimed 



34 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

throughout the centuries continued to live; and when 
the great prophet of Nazareth appeared, he gathered 
rom his predecessors all dat was permanent and 
ivine, and, quickening it by his own mighty pet^on- 
ity, he sent it down the ages until by its life giving 
>wer it should qui ken all men and make them friends 
. God and prophets. 



CHAPTER III 
AMOS 

POLITICAL CONDITIONS IN ISRAEL DURING THE EIGHTH 
CENTURY B. C. 

The Revolution of Jehu. About the year 842 Jehu 
was placed upon the throne of Israel through a con- 
spiracy in which the prophetic party had no small share 
(2 Kings 9, 10). Undoubtedly the loyal worshipers 
of Jehovah expected that he would cooperate with them 
to purify religion, and at first he did not disappoint 
them, for he ruthlessly destroyed the worship of Baal 
and the idolatrous dynasty of Omri. But in the end 
Jehu proved himself little more than an unscrupulous 
adventurer, who improved every opportunity to ad- 
vance his own personal interest. From him pure re- 
ligion could hope for little permanent aid. True, he 
rooted out Baalism, but in its place he restored the 
half -heathenish bull worship introduced by Jeroboam I. 

From Jehu to Jeroboam II. Politically, also, his 
reign proved disastrous. It was during his reign that 
" Jehovah began to cut off from Israel} and Hazael 
smote them in all the borders of Israel ; from the Jordan 
eastward, all the land of Gilead, the Gadites, and the 
Reubenites, and the Manassites, from Aroer, which is 
by the valley of the Arnon, even Gilead and Bashan" 
(2 Kings 10. 32, 33). The misfortunes continued under 
his son and successor Jehoahaz (2 Kings 13. 3, 7). 
Israel seemed on the verge of ' destruction; but it 

35 



36 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

revived once more. Under the successor of Jehoahaz, 
Joash or Jehoash, the fortunes of Israel began to turn 
(2 Kings 13. 25). In part at least the victories of Israel 
at this time were made possible by the advance of 
Assyria, which compelled Syria to withdraw her forces 
from the southwestern boundary and concentrate them 
against that powerful foe in the southeast. 

The Reign of Jeroboam II. The successes of Israel 
continued under Jeroboam II; he became a "saviour" 
of Israel (2 Kings 14. 27), recovered all the territory that 
had been lost, and added to it in every direction; he 
even captured Damascus (2 Kings 14. 23-29). These 
triumphs in war, the revival of commerce, and the new 
development of the internal resources raised Israel to a 
pitch of power and prosperity greater. than had been 
enjoyed since the days of Solomon. 

SOCIAL, MORAL, AND RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS 

Prosperity and Luxury. The social, moral, and 
religious conditions in Israel are portrayed very vividly 
by the prophets of this period, Amos and Hosea. The 
former paints a glowing picture of the prosperity in 
Israel. The luxury of the rich, made possible by the 
increased wealth, met the eyes of the simple herdsman 
on every hand. The palaces built of hewn stone (5. 11), 
some of them paneled with ivory (3. 15), the pretentious 
summer and winter residences (3. 15), the extravagant 
interior finish (3. 12 ; 6. 4), all were to him evidence that 
the former simplicity and stability were threatened 
with extinction. He could not avoid seeing or hearing 
the drunken revelries (6. 5, 6), nor could he be blind to 
the mad extravagance which found satisfaction only in 
possessing the choicest and best of everything, the 



THE PROPHET AMOS 37 

chief oils (6. 6), the most delicate meats (6. 4), the best 
music (6. 5). 

The sanctuaries shared in the general prosperity. The 
chief sanctuary at Beth-el was under royal patronage 
(7. 13), and it was thronged with worshipers (9. 1); the 
other sanctuaries were diligently visited (4. 4 ; 5. 5 ; 8. 14) ; 
offerings and tithes were brought regularly and in 
abundance; feasts were celebrated with all possible 
pomp (4. 4, 5; 5. 21-23). 

Violence and Oppression. A nation so prosperous 
and so zealous in the fulfillment of its religious obli- 
gations might well be called blessed. But the prophet 
was not deceived by the superficial prosperity; he saw 
the dirk side of the nation's life with equal clearness. 
The wealth and luxury of the rich were obtained by 
violence and robbery (3. 10) ; by the oppression of the 
poor and needy, who were driven into actual slavery 
by their cruel creditors (2. 6, 7; 8. 6); by dishonest 
trading, in which every possible advantage was taken 
of the unsuspecting buyer (8. 4-6) ; by exacting presents 
and bribes (5 . 11, 12). Women were no better than men ; 
to satisfy their appetites they urged their husbands to 
greater cruelties (4. 1). Public and private virtue had 
almost completely died out. The corruption of the 
courts of justice was notorious (5. 7, 10, 12; 6. 12); 
the poor could get no satisfactory hearing, justice was 
bought and sold (5. 12). Immoralities were practiced 
without shame (2. 7). Tradesmen were impatient at 
the interruption of their greedy pursuits by the sacred 
days (8. 5). All humane feelings were smothered (2. 8). 

Attitude of the Nobles. The situation was the more 
hopeless because the leaders, who should have been the 
protectors and guardians of the people, were the leaders 



38 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

in vice and crime (6. 1-6), and were indifferent to 
the " affliction of Joseph" (6. 6). Those who attempted 
to reprove the wrong and uphold the right were despised 
and abhorred (5. 10; 7. 10-13). 

Self-righteousness. With this disregard of all human 
and divine law there went, strangely enough, a feeling 
of absolute security and self -righteousness. The great 
mass of people believed that, in view of their pains- 
taking observance of the external ceremonial, they had 
a claim upon the divine favor, and that Jehovah was 
bound to be with them and to protect them from all 
harm (5. 14). This deplorable religious, moral, and so- 
cial condition was all due to a false conception of the 
nature and character of Jehovah. "When men corrupt 
the image of God in their hearts, they forthwith pro- 
ceed to the debasing of themselves, and then to such 
enmity and strife that the bonds of society are wholly 
broken.' ' 

THE PERSON AND LIFE OF THE PROPHET 

Home of Amos. To a loyal adherent of Jehovah con- 
ditions must have appeared desperate. Something 
must be done if the religion of Jehovah was to be saved. 
Amos came to the front to stem and, if possible, turn 
the tide. Though his message was to the northern 
kingdom, the prophet came from Tekoa (1. 1), a town 
of Judah (7. 12), about six miles south of Bethlehem 
and about twelve miles south of Jerusalem. 

Occupations. Amos was not a prophet by educa- 
tion or profession (7. 14). His occupation was that of a 
herdsman (1. 1; 7. 14); literally, "a keeper of nakad 
sheep," which is a species of sheep small and stunted 
in growth, with short legs and ill-formed faces, but 
highly esteemed for their wool. 



THE PROPHET AMOS 39 

Amos also calls himself "one who handles the syco- 
more fig," R.V., "a dresser of sycomore trees" (7. 14). 
The sycomore to which reference is here made is a tree 
which attains the size of a walnut tree ; it has wide- 
spreading branches, and is therefore a favorite shade- 
tree (Luke 19. 14). The fruit, which grows in clusters 
on little sprigs rising directly out of the stem, is like a 
small fig in shape and size, but insipid and woody in 
taste. It is infested with a small insect, and unless 
the fruit is punctured to allow the insect to escape, it 
does not become edible. With the insect escapes a 
bitter juice, and then the fruit ripens and becomes 
edible, though never very palatable. The operation 
of puncturing the fruit is undoubtedly meant in the 
case of Amos. 

The Prophet's Preparation through his Occupation. 
It was while following his daily occupation that the 
divine call reached Amos (7. 15); but the call did not 
find him unprepared. He belonged to the "right- 
minded minority" among the Hebrews, that, in spite 
of all influences to the contrary, retained its faith and 
loyalty to Jehovah. With an open mind and a quick- 
ened conscience he undoubtedly often meditated upon 
the things of God as he dwelt in the solitude of the 
desert. Accustomed to the simpler life of the herds- 
man, he would feel more keenly the extravagance, 
luxury, and corruption of the aristocracy. Compelled 
to defend himself and his flock against the dangers of the 
desert, he would not easily shrink from the dangers 
confronting a prophet of Jehovah. Carefully watching 
every shadow and noise, not knowing how soon a wild 
beast would rush upon him from the apparent quietness, 
he readily developed the vigilance and power of dis- 



40 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

cernment which kept him from being deceived by the 
superficial piety and prosperity of his countrymen. 

Amos's Visits to the Cities of Israel. The influence 
of the lonely shepherd life in shaping Amos into a 
"vessel meet for the Master's use" cannot easily be 
overestimated. But Amos did not receive his training 
exclusively in the solitude of the desert. "As a wool 
grower, Amos must have had his yearly journeys among 
the markets of the land ; and to such were probably due 
his opportunities for familiarity with northern Israel, 
the originals of his vivid pictures of her town life, 
her commerce, and her worship at the great sanctuaries." 

The Keen Perception of Amos. To these sights 
Amos brought from the desert a penetrating vision, a 
quickened conscience, and keen powers of discernment. 
"He saw the raw facts — the poverty, the cruel negli- 
gence of the rich, the injustice of the rulers, the im- 
moralities of the priests. The meaning of these things 
he questioned with as much persistency as he questioned 
every suspicious sound or sight upon the pastures of 
Tekoa. He had no illusions; he knew a mirage when 
he saw one. Neither the military pride of the people, 
fostered by recent successes over Syria, nor the dogmas 
of their religion, which asserted Jehovah's swift triumph 
over the heathen, could prevent him from knowing that 
the immorality of Israel meant Israel's political down- 
fall. He was one of those recruits from common life 
by whom religion and the state have always been re- 
formed. Springing from the laity and very often from 
among the working classes, their freedom from dogmas 
and routine, as well as from the compromising interests 
of wealth, rank, and party, renders them experts in life 
to a degree that almost no professional priest, statesman, 



THE PROPHET AMOS 41 

or journalist, however honest or sympathetic, can rival. 
Into politics they bring facts, but into religion they 
bring vision." 

The Prophet's Experience at Beth-el. Such a man, 
prepared, under the divine providence, by his very 
occupation, was Amos when he heard the call of Jeho- 
vah. A man of his character could not refuse to obey 
the divine voice. He left his flocks and sycomore groves 
and journeyed to Beth-el, the religious center of the 
northern kingdom. There under the shadow of the 
royal sanctuary (7. 13) he delivered his God-given mes- 
sage of warning and exhortation. How long he re- 
mained at Beth-el we do not know. Finally Amaziah, 
the chief priest, aroused by the announcement of the 
overthrow of the sanctuaries and of the dynasty of 
Jeroboam, accused Amos of treason and bade him re- 
turn to his own home and make a living there. Amos 
was not so easily frightened ; he defended his action and 
repeated his message of judgment. 

Later Life of Amos. Of Amos's later life we know 
nothing. But in view of the well-planned disposition of 
his prophecies, and in view of the reference "two years 
before the earthquake" (1. 1) — showing that the words 
were not written until after the earthquake had oc- 
curred — it is reasonable to suppose that after he had 
completed his prophetic ministration he returned to 
Tekoa, took up his former occupation, and at his leisure 
arranged his prophecies in their present form in writing, 
or, at least, that they were written under his direction. 

The Date of Amos. The date of Amos's appearance 
is fixed by 1 . 1 during the reign of Jeroboam II of Israel 
(c. 782-741) and Uzziah of Judah (c. 789-737); in 
other words, between about 780 and 740. From a com- 



42 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

parison of 6. 14 with 2 Kings 14. 25 we may further infer 
that when the prophet appeared the conquests of 
Jeroboam were accomplished, and the tone of the entire 
book suggests that the evil results of these successes 
were already felt. Consequently it may be safe to place 
the activity of Amos after the middle of Jeroboam's 
reign, about 755. 

THE MESSAGE OF AMOS 

Logical Arrangement of the Book. Either the 

prophet himself or some of his disciples collected the 
substance of Amos's message into what is now known 
as the Book of Amos. The arrangement of the separate 
utterances is not chronological but logical, the thought 
being developed as follows: The book opens with 
threats of judgment against the surrounding nations, 
against Judah and especially against Israel ; these are 
followed by a presentation of the reasons for the judg- 
ment ; five visions of the execution of the judgment ; and, 
after a brief reference to the effects upon both godly 
and ungodly, the book closes with a description of the 
exaltation and glory of the remnant that will escape the 
judgment. 

The Book of Amos falls naturally into three divisions : 
Chapters 1, 2, the prologue; chapters 3-6, a series of 
discourses; chapters 7-9, a series of visions, inter- 
rupted by a piece of narrative and short remarks on the 
same subjects as are discussed in chapters 3-6. 

The Prologue, Chapters 1 and 2. Substance and 
form combine to show that chapters 1 and 2 constitute 
a connected whole. Following the title (1. 1) and the 
preface (1. 2) comes a preparatory section (1. 3 — 2. 5) 
leading up to the central thought, the condemnation 



I 



THE PROPHET AMOS 43 

of Israel (2. 6-16). Every listener would admit that 
Damascus, Philistia, Phoenicia, Edom, Ammon, and 
Moab, all neighboring nations which again and again 
had manifested a spirit of hostility against Israel, de- 
served the wrath of Jehovah. Even Judah, more or 
less hostile since the division of the kingdom, merited 
judgment. Consequently these opening denunciations 
would awaken a ready response and win the good will 
of the hearers. When he had thus prepared the way 
he prophet burst forth in a message of denunciation 
nd judgment upon Israel. By their silent consent to 
the condemnation of the other nations they had pro- 
nounced the sentence of doom upon themselves. 

Discourses of Denunciation, Chapters 3-6. The 
denunciation of Israel in 2. 6-16 maybe called the 
thesis of the Book of Amos ; the rest is simply an elab- 
oration of this thesis. Chapters 3-6 form the main part 
of the entire book. It consists of five sections which 
may be called discourses, in which the indictment and 
sentence of 2. 6-16 are expanded and justified. 

Condemnation of the Ruling Classes, 3. 1 — 4. 3. The 
first discourse (3. 1 — 4. 3) is intended primarily for the 
ruling classes. It begins with an admission that Je- 
hovah had known Israel in a special manner. From this 
fact the people drew the inference that Jehovah would 
always be on their side, irrespective of their life and 
conduct, and that the divine care in the past was a 
guarantee of the people's safety in the future. In reply 
the prophet points out briefly that the popular belief 
is unwarranted, and that the inferences drawn from the 
divine choice are false; that the divine choice brought 
to Israel certain privileges, and that these privileges 
involved special obligations. Since they failed to meet 



44 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

these obligations, the fact of the divine choice only 
increased their guilt, and now makes inevitable their 
punishment by a righteous God (3. 1, 2). 

This startling announcement would arouse derision 
and opposition. To ward off these the prophet pro- 
ceeds to point out that, strange as the declaration may 
seem, it is of Jehovah (3-8). In off. he calls upon the 
surrounding nations to testify against Israel. The 
privileges of Israel were superior to those of other na- 
tions, nevertheless their crimes are so heinous that 
they startle even heathen nations (9, 10).. This con- 
dition of affairs makes judgment inevitable (11-15). 
A special judgment will fall upon the luxury-loving 
and self-indulgent ladies of the capital, who are in 
part responsible for the prevailing corruption (4. 1-3). 

The Unheeded Chastisements, 4. 4-13; The second 
discourse (4. 4-13) is addressed to the people at large. 
The occasion was probably a religious gathering when 
the people, by their zeal for the external requirements, 
accompanied by an utter disregard of the divine ethical 
demands, had revealed their utter misapprehension of 
the will of Jehovah. In an ironical vein Amos exhorts 
them to continue their heartless ceremonial worship, 
''for this pleaseth you t " implying at the same time 
that Jehovah takes no delight in it (4, 5). Again and 
again he sought to make them understand his dissatis- 
faction with their conduct, and to bring them to their 
senses by means of seven natural calamities, but in 
vain (6-1 1). Hence he can do nothing but send a 
final blow, for which they must now prepare them- 
selves (12, 13). 

Lamentation, Denunciation, Exhortation, Threats of 
Ruin, 5. 1-17. The third discourse (5. 1-17) opens with 



THE PROPHET AMOS 45 

a dirge in which the overthrow of Israel is represented 
as accomplished (1-3). This fate is well merited, since 
the people have utterly disregarded the demands of 
Jehovah. They have sought him by means of a ritual 
which he does not value ; on the other hand, they have 
spumed the virtues which he prizes (4-10). This con- 
demnation is followed by an ascription of praise to 
Jehovah, to remind the hearers of his majesty, and 
thus to impress them with the importance of heeding 
the message. They are apparently incorrigible, there- 
fore swift judgment will overtake them (11-13) ; never- 
theless sincere repentance may result in the salvation 
of at least a remnant (14, 15). But the prophet seems 
to realize that such hope is vain; at any rate, he 
reiterates the message of doom (16, 17). 

The Terrors of the Day of Jehovah, 5. 18-27. The 
fourth discourse (5. 18-27) speaks of the darkness and 
despair of the day of Jehovah. This day was thought 
to be a day of conflict in which Jehovah would 
manifest himself in the destruction of his enemies and 
the exaltation of his friends. The people looked upon 
themselves as the friends of Jehovah; hence they were 
yearning for the coming of the day of exaltation. Upon 
these mistaken souls Amos pronounces a woe : They will 
be sorely disappointed, for it will prove to them not a 
day of exaltation but a day of terror and disaster 
(18-20). It cannot be otherwise, since their actions 
have shown them to be enemies of Jehovah. Their 
service is an abomination to him, because it is not in 
accord with his requirements (21-25). As, a result the 
terrors of Jehovah will fall upon them in the form of 
exile (26, 27). 

Woe upon the Luxurious, the Self-confident, and the 



46 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

Proud, 6. 1-14. The prophet turns once more to the 
leaders of the people, who, reveling in wealth and 
luxury, were perfectly content with the present state 
of things, and were completely indifferent to the ruin 
threatening the people (6. 1-6). Exile will be their 
punishment ( 7 ) . The whole city and nation will be given 
over to destruction, because the inhabitants have- 
perverted truth and righteousness and have put their 
trust in their own resources (8-14). 

Three Visions of Judgment, 7. 1-9. With chapter 
7 begins the third main division of the Book of Amos. 
Its distinctive characteristic is the presence of five 
visions, by means of which the prophet seeks to en- 
force the contents of the discourses in the preceding 
parts, laying special emphasis upon the certainty and 
finality of the judgment. Two visions — the swarm 
of locusts and the devouring fire — describe a calamity 
which had already caused much suffering and was 
threatening complete destruction, when Jehovah in his 
mercy averted the final catastrophe (7. 1-6). The 
third vision — the master builder with the plumb line — 
does not picture the calamity itself, but portrays Jeho- 
vah as decreeing the utter destruction of the house of 
Israel (7-9). 

The Antagonism of the Chief Priest, 7. 10-17. The 
three visions are followed by an historical section (10- 
17), in which Amos narrates how the announcement 
of the judgment stirred the antagonism of the chief 
priest at Beth-el, who attempted to drive Amos back 
to Judah. The prophet could not be silenced; he justi- 
fied his presence by an appeal to the call he received 
from Jehovah, and repeated his threat, adding a per- 
sonal woe upon the chief priest and his family. 



THE PROPHET AMOS 47 

Closing Visions and Exhortations, 8. 1 — 9. 10. The 

fourth vision — the basket of summer fruit — announces 
that the time of mercy is past ; the end has come upon 
Israel (8. 1-3). To this vision Amos adds fresh de- 
nunciations of Israel's sins and announcements of 
judgment (4-14). The fifth vision — the smitten 
sanctuary — differs in form from the preceding four, 
but its purpose is the same, to make clear that Jehovah 
is determined to make an end of the sinful kingdom 
(9. 1-6). The prophet combats again the misappre- 
hension that their former choice by Jehovah can be 
regarded as a permanent safeguard (7, 8), and once 
more he predicts judgment, now calling special atten- 
tion to its disciplinary purpose, and promises the pres- 
ervation of a sound kernel (9, 10). 

Promises of a Bright Future, 9. 11-15. The book 
closes with promises of a bright future to this faithful 
remnant. The dynasty of David will be restored to 
power (11), the surrounding nations will be reconquered 
(12), extraordinary fertility will bless the soil (13), the 
exiles will be restored to their own land, there to live 
forever in prosperity and joy (14, 15). 

THE TEACHING OF AMOS 

The Need of the Eighth Century. Attention has been 
called on page 30 to the dangers which threatened the 
religion of Jehovah during the eighth century B. C, 
and to the manner in which Amos and the other prophets 
of that period sought to overcome them. The funda- 
mental need was a statement or restatement, on the 
one hand, of the true nature and character of Jehovah ; 
on the other, of the proper relation between Jehovah 
and Israel, as also between Jehovah and the other 



48 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

nations. Amos and his contemporaries in the prophetic 
office supplied this demand. The teaching of Amos 
may conveniently be summarized under two heads: 
i. The prophet's conception of Jehovah, the God of 
Israel; 2. The prophet's conception of Israel, the 
people of Jehovah. 

1. The Prophet's Conception of Jehovah. — Monothe- 
ism. Amos is a monotheist. He believes that there 
is only one true God, namely, Jehovah, whose prophet 
he knows himself to be. Though the dogma of mono- 
theism is nowhere taught, the tone of the entire book 
places the subject beyond doubt. "No one," says 
Marti, "can fail to observe that in this belief of Amos 
monotheism is present in essence if not in name." 

(1) Personality. Concerning the nature and character 
of this one God, Amos teaches that he is a person. The 
God of Amos is capable of every emotion, volition, and 
activity of which a person is capable. He swears by 
himself (6. 8; compare 4. 2), he repents (7. 3), he com- 
municates with others (3. 7), he issues commands 
(9. 3, 4), he determines upon lines of action (6. 8; 7. 3), 
he hates and abhors (5. 21, 22 ; 6. 8). 

(2) Omnipotence. The omnipotence of Jehovah may 
be seen in the acts of creation (4. 13; 5. 8, 9; 9. 6), as 
also in the continuous control which he exercises over 
all the forces of nature (4. 6-1 1 , 1 3 ; 5 . 8 ; 8. 9 ; 9. 5 , 6) . An 
even stronger proof of the supreme power of Jehovah 
is the fact that he controls the nations of the earth 
and determines their destiny (1. 3 — 2. 3:2. 9-16; 9. 7; 
etc.). Amos's conception of Jehovah's infinite power 
finds expression also in the divine titles he uses — "the 
Lord Jehovah" (twenty times); "Jehovah, the God of 
hosts" (4. 13; 5. 14, 15; 6. 8, 14; compare 5. 27); 



THE PROPHET AMOS 49 

4 'the Lord Jehovah of hosts" (9. 5) ; "the Lord Jehovah, 
the God of hosts" (3. 13); "Jehovah, the God of hosts, 
the Lord" (5. 16). 

(3) Omnipresence. The omnipresence of Jehovah 
is at least implied in chapters 1 and 2, and is unam- 
biguously taught in 9. 2ff., which is one of the most 
terrible and, at the same time, most sublime passages 
in the whole book. 

(4) Omniscience. Amos 9. 2 ft*. also teaches that God 
knows all things. He needs omniscience to discover 
the hiding place of the fugitive sinners, and without 
it he could not reveal unto man his, that is, man's, 
thought (4. 13). 

(s) Righteousness. Perhaps the most important ele- 
ment in Amos's teaching concerning the character of 
Jehovah is his constant emphasis of Jehovah's righteous- 
ness. Jehovah is not partial to Israel; he deals with all 
nations, Israel included, according to ethical principles 
(3. 1, 2 ; 7. 7-9; 8. 1-3 ; 9. 8; etc.). He takes no delight 
in their superficial and external worship. His demand 
is, "Let justice roll down as waters, and righteousness 
as a perennial stream" (5. 24; compare 4. 4, 5 ; 5. 21-23). 

(6) Mercy. Though Amos dwells so persistently on 
the righteousness of Jehovah, and thus gives to his 
whole message a tone of severity, he does not alto- 
gether forget that Jehovah is a merciful God. True, 
he does not emphasize this phase of the divine character 
as does his younger contemporary Hosea ; nevertheless, 
here and there glimpses of it may be had. Twice he 
dared to intercede on behalf of the sinful nation (7.2,5), 
and he held out the promise that under certain con- 
ditions Jehovah might be gracious unto a remnant of 
Joseph (5. 15). 



50 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

2. Amos's Conception of Israel. — (i) Israel the 
People of Jehovah. The prophet's teaching concern- 
ing Israel is a reflection of or a deduction from his 
teaching concerning Jehovah. Amos is thoroughly 
convinced that, though Jehovah sustains vital relations 
to other nations, he has a peculiar interest in Israel — 
Israel is in a special sense the people of Jehovah 
(2. 9, 10; 3. 1, 2). 

(2) The Divine Ideal for Israel. As the people of 
Jehovah, Israel should reflect the character of her 
God; otherwise intimate fellowship between the two is 
impossible (3. 2; 5. 4, 24; 6. 14). 

(3) Jehovah's Revelations to Israel. Jehovah re- 
vealed himself "in divers manners" to the Israelites, 
in order that they might know his will and do it. He 
did so preeminently through the prophets and Nazirites 
(2. 11 ; 3. 7), through the law — to Judah (2.4), through 
Amos (3. 8; 7. 15), and through the acts of the Divine 
Providence (4. 6-1 1). The privileges involved in these 
special manifestations brought increased responsibilities 
and obligations to Israel. 

(4) Israel's Shortcomings. Through neglect of these 
responsibilities and obligations Israel fell far short of 
Jehovah's ideal for his people. From beginning to 
end the prophecy abounds in pictures of Israel's faith- 
lessness. Righteousness and justice were trampled 
under foot (5. 7), the poor and the needy were oppressed 
(2. 6, 7; 3. 10; 5. 11, 12), the name of Jehovah was 
dishonored by the immoral practices connected with 
the worship (2. 7,8); indeed, the whole worship was an 
abomination to Jehovah, because it was not offered in 
the right spirit, nor was it backed by a consistent life 
(5-21-25). 



THE PROPHET AMOS 51 

(5) The Inevitable Judgment. The righteousness of 
Jehovah demands the execution of judgment upon the 
sinful kingdom (2. 13-16; 3. 14, 15; 9. 8; etc.). This 
judgment, the prophet thinks, will take the form of 
a foreign invasion and exile, which will result in the de- 
struction of the nation Israel (3. 11 ; 4. 3 ; 5.27; 6. 14). 

(6) The Salvation of a Remnant and its Future Glory. 
From the judgment a faithful remnant will escape 
(5 . 15; 9-9). Around this remnant center the hopes 
of the prophet for the future. It will form the nucleus 
of the new kingdom of God, whose rulers will be of the 
dynasty of David, which will be restored to power. The 
surrounding nations will be reconquered; and the soil 
will be blessed with extraordinary fertility, so that the 
new nation may dwell in peace and prosperity forever 
(9. 11-15). The picture of the future glory is a very 
simple one, to be enlarged and spiritualized by later 
prophets. 

Permanent Lessons of the Book of Amos. Kirk- 
patrick calls attention to the following as the most im- 
portant permanent religious and moral lessons of the 
Book of Amos: (1) Justice between man and man is 
one of the divine foundations of society; (2) Privilege 
implies responsibility ; (3) Failure to recognize respon- 
sibility is sure to bring punishment; (4) Nations, and, 
by analogy, individuals, are bound to live up to the 
light and knowledge granted to them; (5) The most 
elaborate worship is but an insult to God when offered 
by those who have no mind to conform to his demands. 



CHAPTER IV 
HOSEA 

THE HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF HOSEA'S ACTIVITY 

Date of Hosea. A few years after the withdrawal 
of Amos from Israel a new prophet arose to continue 
his work. While the Book of Hosea does not state when 
Hosea' s ministry began, the testimony of the title, 
the apparent imminence of the judgment announced, 
and internal evidence combine to show that his pro- 
phetic activity began after the close of Amos's ministry. 
Concerning the length of his public career, i . i states that 
he prophesied in the days of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and 
Hezekiah, kings of Judah, and in the days of Jeroboam, 
the son of Joash, king of Israel. That chapters 1-3 come 
from the days of Jeroboam II is beyond doubt, and 
internal evidence makes it equally certain that chapters 
4-14 reflect the troubled period subsequent to his death. 
It is not so clear, however, that he continued to prophesy 
during the reigns of Ahaz and Hezekiah, kings of Judah. 
His silence concerning the invasion of Judah by Israel 
and Damascus, his reference to Gilead as Israelite ter- 
ritory, and his mention of Assyria as an ally of Israel 
make it probable that Hosea did not prophesy during or 
subsequent to the invasion of Judah in 735-734, which 
caused the advance of Assyria against Israel, which 
in turn led to the loss of Gilead. Consequently the 
activity of Hosea may be assigned to the period be- 
tween 750 and 735 B. C. 

52 



THE PROPHET HOSEA 53 

Political Conditions in Israel. During these years 
Israel was rapidly drifting to its doom. The situation 
remained for some years as it was during the time of 
Amos' s activity; but with the death of Jeroboam politi- 
cal conditions changed. The reign of this king had 
been a long one, marked by successes without and 
prosperity within; but the dynasty of Jehu, of which 
Jeroboam was the fourth ruler, did not satisfy the 
eighth century prophets, though it had been placed upon 
the throne with the sanction and aid of the prophetic 
order (2 Kings 9, 10). Amos announced the overthrow 
of the "house of Jeroboam' ' (7. 9), and almost the first 
words in the Book of Hosea announce judgment upon 
this dynasty (1. 4, 5 ; the reference is to 2 Kings 10. 11). 
The threat was fulfilled shortly after the death of 
Jeroboam. Party spirit, no longer held in check by a 
strong hand, broke out, and his son and successor, 
Zechariah, was slain in a conspiracy after a reign of 
only six months. With him the dynasty of Jehu came 
to an end. There followed a period of anarchy of which 
Hosea supplies a vivid picture (7. 3-7 ; 8. 4). Kings came 
forward in rapid succession, and the external policy was 
one of weakness and vacillation. Shallum, the murderer 
of Zechariah, was overthrown after one month by 
Menahem, who, to strengthen his position, bought the 
support of Tiglath-pileser IV of Assyria (2 Kings 15. 19, 
20 ; compare Hos. 8. 9, 10). At the same time, or shortly 
after, another party was seeking help from Egypt (1 2 . 1 ) . 
Menahem died a natural death, and was succeeded by 
his son, Pekahiah, who after two years was assassinated 
by Pekah (2 Kings 15. 25). The new king entered into 
an alliance with Rezin of Damascus, and together 
they invaded Judah (2 Kings 16. 6; Isa. 7. 1-3). Pekah 



54 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

was murdered by Hoshea (2 Kings 15. 30), with the 
connivance and support of the Assyrian king, in 734, and 
Hoshea became the last king of the northern kingdom. 
Moral and Religious Conditions. Little needs to be 
added to what has been said in connection with Amos 
concerning the moral and religious conditions in Israel. 
At the time of Hosea the excesses had become even 
more marked. The prophet sums up his indictments 
in one word, "whoredom." Israel, the spouse of Jeho- 
vah, had proved faithless to her husband. The evi- 
dences of her unfaithfulness were seen in the sphere 
of religion, of ethics, and of politics, and the sins 
provoking the anger of Jehovah and of his prophet 
center around these three heads. The Israelites were 
without the knowledge of Jehovah (4.6; 5.4; etc.) ; as a 
result they were ignorant concerning the real require- 
ments of Jehovah, and their worship was not acceptable 
to him. Nominally they paid homage to Jehovah 
(5. 6; 6. 6ff.) ; in reality they honored the Baals, that 
is, the gods of the native Canaanites. This illegitimate 
worship called forth Hosea's severest and most persist- 
ent condemnation (2. 2ff.; 4. nfL; 8. 4E.; 9. 10; 10. 
iff. ; 13. iff. ; 14. 1-3). In the sphere of ethics their lack 
of the knowledge of Jehovah resulted in conduct abso- 
lutely contrary to the demands of Jehovah ; immorali- 
ties, crimes, and vices of every description were practiced 
openly and in defiance of all prophetic exhortations (4.1, 
2, 6ff., 13, 18; 6. 8, 9; 7. 1-7; 10. 4, 9, i2ff.). In the 
sphere of politics the faithlessness manifested itself in a 
twofold manner: (1) in rebellion against all legitimate 
authority, and assassinations of various kings and 
princes (7. 1-7; 8. 4; 13. 10, 11), and (2) in dependence 
upon human defenses (8. 14; 10. 13; 14. 3) and foreign 



THE PROPHET HOSEA 55 

alliances (5. 13; 7. 8, 11-13; 8. 9; 12. 1; 14. 3; com- 
pare 7. 16; 8. 13; 9. 3ff.; 10. 6; 11. 11) rather than upon 
the power of Jehovah. 

THE PERSONAL LIFE OF HOSEA 

Home of Hosea. Hosea had one important advan- 
tage over his predecessor. Amos was a native of Judah, 
sent to the northern kingdom on a temporary mission ; 
Hosea was a citizen of the north, bound by a sympa- 
thetic patriotism to the kingdom whose destruction he 
was commissioned to predict. "In every sentence," 
says Ewald," it appears that Hosea had not only 
visited the kingdom of Ephraim, as Amos had done, 
but that he is acquainted with it from the depths of 
his heart, and follows all its doings, aims, and fortunes 
with the profound feelings gendered of such a sympathy 
as is conceivable in the case of a native prophet only." 

Personal History of the Prophet. Little is known 
of the prophet's personal history. He represents him- 
self as marrying Gomer, who became the mother of 
several children, to whom he gave names symbolic of 
the destiny of his people (chapter 1). This Gomer 
proved unfaithful and left his home, but in the end was 
bought back by Hosea and restored to his home, 
though, temporarily at least, not to the full privileges 
of wifehood (3. 1-3). Hosea prophesied for a number 
of years. A Jewish legend states that he died in Babylon, 
that his body was carried to Galilee and buried in 
Safed, northwest of the Sea of Galilee, on the highest 
point in that region. According to another tradition he 
was a native of Gilead and was buried there. The grave 
of Nebi Osha (the prophet Hosea) is shown near es-Salt, 
a few miles south of the Jabbok. 



56 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

Occupation. There is nothing to indicate what was 
the occupation of Hosea. The attempt has been made 
to prove that he belonged to the priestly class, but the 
evidence is not conclusive. Whatever his occupation, 
Hosea was a keen observer of the life about him, and 
he reveals a remarkable familiarity with the past history 
and the ancient traditions of his people. To judge from 
the images and comparisons in which the book abounds 
it would seem that the prophet's home was in the 
country and not in the city. 

Hosea's Marriage. The domestic experience of Hosea 
played an important part in the preparation of Hosea 
for his prophetic ministry to Israel. Of the various 
interpretations of the verses dealing with Hosea' s 
marriage (i. 2, 3) the following seems the most natural 
and the one most in accord with the language of the 
prophet. Gomer was unstained when she became the 
wife of Hosea. The evil tendencies were within her, 
but they had not yet manifested themselves. Hosea 
loved her dearly, but his love was not sufficient to 
prevent the outbreak. She finally abandoned him for 
her paramours or, perhaps, the licentious rites con- 
nected with the worship of the Baals. 

As the prophet, his heart still burning with tender 
love for his faithless spouse, sat and pondered over his 
past domestic experience he came to see that even this 
sad occurrence was not a blind chance, but in accord 
with Divine Providence. Jehovah led him into this ex- 
perience in order to teach him the lesson which he in 
turn was to teach Israel, and which he could not have 
learned as well in any other way. At the time he did 
not realize the significance of the occurrence; only 
gradually did it dawn upon him that as far as his mes- 



THE PROPHET HOSEA 57 

sage to his people was concerned the unhappy alliance 
was the first step in his prophetic career. It is from the 
vantage point of this later recognition that Hosea 
describes, in 1. 2, 3, the earlier experience. It would be 
wrong, however, to assume that Hosea was not a prophet 
until all these experiences had come to him. He must 
have been conscious of a prophetic commission even 
before the birth of his firstborn, else how would he have 
come to give him the symbolic name? Nevertheless, 
the tone of the entire book shows that his own personal 
domestic experience was the means whereby God spoke 
to him and supplied him with his prophetic message to 
Israel. Therefore Hosea is justified in calling the im- 
pulse to marry Gomer the beginning of his prophetic 
ministry. 

The experience of Hosea in thus recognizing at a 
later time the hand of God in events already past is not 
absolutely unique, for it often happens that God's 
instruments act under his direction without being con- 
scious that they are thus guided; only at a later time 
their eyes are opened so that they see the reality of the 
Divine Providence. If anyone should ask why God 
laid this heavy burden upon his prophet, reply may be 
made that it appears to be a universal law of this sin- 
stricken world that God makes perfect through suffering ; 
that redemption is wrought through sacrifice. 

THE MESSAGE OF HOSEA 

The Book of Hosea contains the substance of the 
prophet's earnest and persistent appeals by which 
he sought to bring the faithless nation back to its 
Divine Master. The book falls naturally into two well- 
marked divisions, chapters 1-3 and 4-14. 



58 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

Hosea and Gomer, i. 2-9; 3. 1-3. The first division 
sets forth the prophet's marriage and gives the ap- 
plication of the story: Jehovah's love and Israel's 
faithlessness. The story is contained in 1. 2-9 and 
3. 1-3, while 1. 10 — 2. 23 and 3. 4, 5 give the exposition. 
The prophet relates how, at the divine command, he 
took to wife Gomer, the daughter of Diblaim (1. 2, 3). 
By her he had three children, to whom he gave names 
symbolic of some of the truths he taught: Jezreel, 
symbolizing the overthrow of the dynasty of Jehu 
(4, 5), Lo-ruhamah, announcing that Jehovah will 
have no more mercy upon Israel (6, 7), and Lo-ammi, 
symbolizing the utter rejection of Israel (8, 9). In 
time Gomer left her home to give herself more unre- 
servedly to her shameful practices ; chapter 3 . 2 seems 
to imply that she became the slave concubine of an- 
other. But Hosea continued to love her and, im- 
pelled by love, bought her back, though for a while 
he did not restore her to the full privileges of wifehood 

(3- i-3)- 
Jehovah and Israel, 1. 10 — 2. 23; 3. 4, 5. This 

domestic experience is presupposed in 1. 10 — 2. 23 and 
3. 4, 5. The historical figures in 1. 1-9 and 3. 1-3, the 
prophet, his wife, and his children, here become al- 
legorical figures. Israel is the adulterous wife, Jehovah 
the deceived but still loving husband, the individual 
Israelites are the children. Some of these have re- 
mained free from the sins of the mother. To these 
faithful individuals Jehovah addresses himself, urging 
them to attempt the restoration of the faithless wife and 
mother, Israel, to the wronged but yearning husband, 
Jehovah. The utterance opens with a description of 
Israel's whoredom (2. 2-5), which is followed by an 



THE PROPHET HOSEA 59 

announcement of the evil consequences of the faithless- 
ness (6-13); it closes with a delineation of the efforts 
to be made by Jehovah for the purpose of winning back 
the faithless wife, and of the glories awaiting her when 
she comes to her senses (14-23; compare 1. 10 — 2. 1). 
The promise of restoration is repeated in 3. 5, but 
before Israel can enjoy the new blessings she must pass 
through a long period of seclusion, when she will be 
deprived of all her religious and civil institutions (4). 

The Second Book of Hosea, Chapters 4-14. Chapters 
4-14, sometimes called the "Second Book of Hosea," 
contain the substance of the prophet's discourses dur- 
ing the years subsequent to the death of Jeroboam 
II. It is almost impossible to trace in this second 
division a definite plan of arrangement, though fresh 
beginnings may be noted in 4. 1 ; 5. 1 ; 9. 1 ; 11. 12 ; 13. 1 ; 
14. 1. From beginning to end the prophet has in 
mind the hopeless condition of his people; he exhorts, 
laments-, warns, pleads, denounces, promises — in fact, 
uses every possible means of persuasion — in order that 
he may win back the people to a pure and acceptable 
service of Jehovah. 

The Nation's Guilt, Chapter 4. This section opens 
with a solemn summons to hear the indictment brought 
against the people by Jehovah. The predominant note 
in chapter 4 is the nation's guilt: religiously and mor- 
ally the people are hopelessly corrupt. In verses 1-10 
the moral corruption in everyday life receives special 
condemnation; in verses 11 -19, the immoral practices 
connected with the religious cult. Both sections close 
with announcements of judgment (9, 10, 19). In con- 
nection with the general condemnation Hosea ac- 
cuses the priests of being chiefly responsible for the 



60 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

lamentable condition of the people (especially 4-8). 
They have failed to instruct the people in the "law of 
Jehovah." 

Universal Corruption and the Inevitable Judg- 
ment, Chapter 5. Chapters 5-8, which are closely 
connected, present a detailed account of the manner 
in which corruption penetrated the entire public life 
and affected all from the highest to the lowest. In- 
terspersed are exhortations, warnings, and threats of 
inevitable destruction. Chapter 5 falls naturally into 
two parts: verses 1-7, where the emphasis is upon 
guilt, and 8-15, which deal primarily with judgment. 
The address is directed against (1) the priests, (2) the 
people, and (3) the king and his courtiers. It is not 
always easy to say which of these receives primary 
attention. The religious and civil leaders are largely 
to blame for present conditions, but all must suffer 
the consequences. 

Insincerity an Abomination to Jehovah, Chapter 6. 
Chapter 5. 15 expresses the hope that Israel will yet 
return to Jehovah and seek his face. This hope will be 
realized. Israel will return (6. 1-3), but without real, 
heartfelt repentance. In the mutual exhortation to 
return there is not one expression of sorrow for wrong- 
doing, only anxiety to have distress and calamity re- 
moved. Therefore Jehovah is not favorably im- 
pressed with the supplication. His reply is contained 
in 6. 4 — 8. 14. It is almost impossible to recognize 
any distinct break throughout this reply. The whole 
is a severe condemnation of the people's attitude 
toward Jehovah. Verse 4 may be regarded as the 
direct reply. Jehovah perceives that the sentiments 
expressed in 1-3 do not come from the heart. But if 



THE PROPHET HOSEA 61 

all he has done for his people in the past has failed to 
lead to repentance, what more can he do? From this 
question he passes immediately to point out the people's 
utter misconception of the divine requirements (5, 6), 
and to delineate their sinful career; the corruption 
seems incurable (7-1 ia). 
Moral Degradation and Anarchy, 7. 1-7. With 

6. 11b begins a new picture of the moral degradation 
and the resulting anarchy. The mercy of Jehovah, 
manifesting itself in his willingness to remove the dis- 
tress, had no salutary effect. Gradually their wrongs 
have surrounded them until escape seems impossible; 
even repentance seems out of the question (7. 1, 2). 
While some details in the interpretation of verses 3-7 
are uncertain, the general drift of the prophet's argu- 
ment is clear. The prophet describes in vivid colors 
the corruption that pervades the whole nation from 
the king down, and shows that the existing anarchy 
is the inevitable result of that corruption. He sees 
adultery, drunkenness, conspiracy, assassinations every- 
where, not one redeeming feature. Jehovah alone can 
heal the disease, but no one calls upon him (7). 

Appeal to Other Nations will End in Destruction, 

7. 8-16. Instead, Israel has mingled with the nations, 
there to learn wisdom and find help (8). Disaster has 
been the result (9, 10), but still it persists; hither and 
thither it turns, like a silly dove (11), unaware that it 
is becoming entangled in a net from which there can be 
no escape (12). Jehovah at one time expected great 
things from his children; what a disappointment they 
have become (1 3-1 6a)! 

Israel's Rebellion and its Consequences, Chapter 8. 
Israel has proved a disappointment; defiantly it per- 



62 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

sists in rebellion; therefore judgment has become in- 
evitable; rapidly it is approaching (7. 16b — 8. 3). In 
verse 4 the prophet renews his attack upon Israel. 
The political revolutions are rebellions against Jehovah 
(4) ; idolatry is an abomination to him (4-6) ; they must 
reap what they have sown (7) ; their appeals to foreign 
nations will not save them (8-10). Once more he con- 
demns their religious practices ; then the section closes 
with a threat of judgment (11-14). 

Exile the Punishment for Religious and Moral 
Apostasy, 9. 1-9. Chapter 9. 1 marks a new beginning. 
The prophet beholds the rejoicing of the people at har- 
vest time, perhaps at a joyous religious festival. Rejoic- 
ing at such a time is perfectly natural ; but, judging from 
chapter 2, much of the celebration, though nominally 
in recognition of Jehovah's goodness, was in reality 
in honor of the Baalim. This the prophet cannot 
endure. He warns the people not to be too exuberant 
(1), for the occasions of rejoicing will soon cease. On 
account of their apostasy Jehovah will withdraw his 
blessings (2); yea, they will be carried into exile (3), 
where, upon an unclean land, joyful religious feasts can 
no longer be celebrated (4,5); their own land will become 
a wilderness (6). After announcing the impending 
doom the prophet points out once more the moral 
and religious apostasy responsible for the judgment 

(7-9). 
Israel's Apostasy and Punishment, 9. 10-17. Three 

times in chapters 9-1 1 (9. 10; 10. 9; n. 1) Hosea re- 
verts to the early history of Israel to show how loving 
had been the divine care and how persistent Israel's 
apostasy and rebellion. In the beginning Israel ap- 
peared to Jehovah like a desirable fruit, but ere long 



THE PROPHET HOSEA 63 

contact with the Canaanitish religion caused con- 
tamination, and Israel became an abomination in the 
sight of Jehovah (10). In consequence, awful judg- 
ments will come (11-17). The form of the expected 
judgments is not quite clear. 

The Imminent Destruction, 10. 1-8. Hosea re- 
verts to Israel's guilt once more in chapter 10. Using 
the figure of a luxuriant vine, he describes Israel's ex- 
ternal prosperity ; it increased steadily, but the greater 
the prosperity, the more flagrant the moral and re- 
ligious corruption (1, 2). Therefore altars, idols, and 
pillars shall be broken down, the calves of Samaria 
shall be carried to Assyria, priests and people shall be 
in terror and shall mourn (2-6) ; even the king shall 
be cut off (7). The high places shall be destroyed, 
thorns and thistles shall grow over them, and in terror 
the people shall cry for the mountains and hills to fall 
upon them (8). 

Israel's Persistence in Rebellion, 10. 9-15. With 
verse 9 the prophet begins a new presentation of Israel's 
guilt. In the very beginning a great crime darkened 
their history (9) ; from that time on they have re- 
sisted every effort to lead them into a higher life; 
hence death and destruction await them (9-1 1). The 
announcement of judgment is interrupted by an 
exhortation to repentance (12), which immediately 
changes again into a threat (13-15). 

Jehovah's Love for the Prodigal Israel, Chapter 11. 
Chapter 1 1 traces the father's love for the prodigal son 
in the history of Israel. The prophet points out how 
great, strong, and tender has been the divine love 
(1, 3, 4), and how unappreciative and ungrateful the 
chosen people (2, 7); hence justice demands the ex- 



64 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

ecution of judgment (5,6). But Israel is still the son of 
Jehovah, and the divine compassion goes out for the 
prodigal (8) ; therefore the punishment will be tempered 
by mercy, and after it has accomplished its disciplinary 
purpose Israel will be restored to the divine favor 
(9-11). 

Israel's Faithlessness and Ingratitude, Chapter 12. 
Chapter 11. 12 (Hebrew, 12. 1) is closely connected 
with chapter 12. Israel proved false to Jehovah when 
it entered into covenants with foreign nations (11. 12; 

12. 1); therefore the anger of Jehovah is aroused (2). 
Three incidents in the history of the patriarch Jacob are 
mentioned to bring out more distinctly the contrast 
between the ancestor so anxious for the divine blessing 
and the descendants so indifferent to Jehovah (3-5). 
If only they would turn to the God of Jacob, he would 
have mercy upon them (6). Their only ambition has 
been to accumulate wealth, and shameful are the means 
by which they have sought to attain it (7). They glory 
in their success (8), but it shall avail them nothing, for 
Jehovah is about to drive Israel back into the desert (9) . 
Persistent have been the efforts on the part of Jehovah 
to prevent the judgment (10) ; therefore no one can be 
blamed but the people (11). By a comparison of the 
experiences of the nation with those of Jacob in Aram 
the prophet seeks to show what great things Jehovah 
has done for the people, and how the divine love was 
met with persistent ingratitude and provocation; in 
view of this the sentence must stand (12-14). 

Israel has Signed its Own Death Warrant, Chapter 

13. Chapter 13 contains one of the most comprehen- 
sive and powerful discourses in the book. It opens with 
a reference to the tribe of Ephraim, which in the be- 



THE PROPHET HOSEA 65 

ginning occupied a position of prominence in the nation, 
but signed its own death warrant when it apostatized 
from Jehovah (1). From this well-known example 
Israel should have learned its lesson, but it failed to do 
so; it persisted in shameless idolatry, therefore it will 
vanish like chaff before the whirlwind (2, 3). The re- 
bellious attitude, the prophet continues, is unintelligible, 
since the God whom they rejected is the God who 
led them from the time of the Exodus. Strange to say, 
the more Jehovah prospered them, the more arrogant 
they became, the more forgetful of Jehovah; hence 
he will devour them like a lion (4-8). By rebelling 
against Jehovah Israel courted destruction, which is 
now inevitable ; no one can prevent it, Jehovah himself 
can show mercy no longer (9-14). The discourse 
closes with a threat of utter destruction (15, 16). 

Israel's Conversion and the Restoration of the 
Divine Favor, Chapter 14. Chapter 14 is permeated 
by a spirit different from that of the preceding chapters ; 
denunciation gives place to promise. The prophet 
exhorts Israel to return to Jehovah in humility and 
sorrow (1, 2 a). He puts upon the lips of the Israelites 
words expressive of deepest remorse, and of an earnest 
determination to remain forever loyal to Jehovah 
(2b, 3). To their longing cry Jehovah responds that he 
will graciously pardon and shower upon the God-fear- 
ing people blessings hitherto unknown (4-8). Verse 9 
stands by itself as an epilogue to the whole book. Who- 
ever desires to become wise and prudent, let him be- 
come acquainted with the oracles of Hosea ; from them 
he may learn that the way of Jehovah is right, and that 
the destiny of men is determined by their attitude to- 
ward the divine will. 



66 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

THE TEACHING OF HOSEA 

The message of Hosea is very comprehensive, touch- 
ing upon social and political questions as well as upon 
the moral and religious situation, and yet the principles 
underlying his discourses are few and easily discov- 
ered. 

The Nature and Character of Jehovah. Funda- 
mental in the teaching of the prophet is his conception 
of the nature and character of Jehovah. He considers a 
lack of the knowledge of Jehovah responsible for the cor- 
ruption of Israel. Had they possessed a proper knowl- 
edge of him, the present corruption would have been im- 
possible; and by imparting this knowledge he hopes 
to bring about a moral transformation. 

(i) Monotheism. Like Amos, Hosea is a monotheist. 
There is but one God, and he is the God of Israel, 
who controls other nations as well (2. 51T . ; 8. 4fL; 13. 

2; 14.3)- 

(2) Omnipotence. If Jehovah is the only true God, 
the maker of heaven and earth, the determiner of the 
destinies of the nations, it follows that he is a God of 
supreme power, of omnipotence. There are, however, 
no passages in Hosea such as are found in Amos (4. 13 ; 
5- 8, 9; 9. 5, 6), calling attention to this omnipotence; 
Hosea assumes it. 

(3) Righteousness. A most important question was 
how Jehovah would use this power in dealing with 
Israel and the other nations. Here again Hosea agrees 
with Amos in portraying Jehovah as a holy and right- 
eous God, the use of whose power is determined by 
ethical considerations. Both prophets teach that 
Jehovah deals with the nations of the earth, Israel in- 
cluded, according to their attitude toward him; he 



THE PROPHET HOSEA 67 

will always punish sin, even in Israel; righteousness 
alone can win his favor (9.9; 8.13). 

(4) God is Love. A fourth and, perhaps, the dis- 
tinguishing element in Hosea's conception of Jehovah 
is the thought that God is love. This thought colors 
Hosea's teachings from beginning to end. A favorite 
expression of Hosea is " loving-kindness." This element 
is not entirely absent from Amos, though the latter 
never uses the former's favorite word ; nevertheless to 
Amos Jehovah is primarily the God of righteousness. 
Amos thinks of him primarily as king and judge, Hosea 
as husband and father, with a love such as a hus- 
band may feel for his wife, and such as a father may 
treasure for his son. In chapters 1-3 the sin of Israel 
'Is represented as "whoredom" (1.2; 2.5,8); but God 
has not forsaken his faithless spouse, he loves her as 
much as ever, and by the manifestation of his love he 
will win her back into permanent heart union (2. 19, 20). 
The greater part of chapters 4-14 presents a different 
picture. Jehovah is the father, Israel is the prodigal 
son ; the loving father seeks earnestly to save the wan- 
derer (9. 1, 8; compare 6. 4). 

The Covenant between Jehovah and Israel. Closely 
connected with and dependent upon Hosea's conception 
of Jehovah's character is his conception of Israel's re- 
lation to Jehovah and of the service acceptable to him. 
Hosea from beginning to end holds fast to the con- 
viction that Israel is in a peculiar sense the people of 
Jehovah. It has become such through the choice of 
Jehovah, and the union was cemented by a national 
covenant, made at the very beginning of Israel's history, 
that is, at the time of the Exodus (9. 10; 11. 1-4; 12. 9; 
13. 4). The intimacy of this covenant relation is de- 



68 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

scribed under the two figures of marriage (chapters 1-3) 
and filial relation (11. 1; compare Exod. 4. 22). A 
covenant always involves mutual obligations. The 
obligation taken upon himself by Jehovah was to 
look after the temporal and spiritual needs of his 
people; this Jehovah has carefully done throughout 
Israel's entire history. He has supplied the tem- 
poral wants (2. 8; 10. 1, 11; 12. 8; 13. 4-6), and he 
has done his best to supply their spiritual needs. By 
the voice of living prophecy and the words of law he 
has sought to teach and direct them (11. 1-4; 7. 15; 
8. 12; 12. 10). 

Israel's Faithlessness to the Covenant. But, alas, 
Israel has transgressed the covenant (6. 7; 8. 1). Its 
obligations may be summed up in one word, " faithful- 
ness"; that is, loyalty to the husband, obedience to the 
father. Israel's transgression also may be summed up 
in one word, "faithlessness": the wife followed after 
paramours (2. 5); the son disregarded the will of the 
father as revealed by the prophets and in the law. 
Passages such as 4. 1 ; 6. 6; 10. 12; 12.6 call attention 
to the principal requirements, obedience to which was 
Israel's duty. Every one of these has been willfully 
transgressed by the nation from the beginning of its 
history until the prophet's days (9. 10; 10. 9; 13. 2). 
Israel having thus persistently disregarded the cove- 
nant, Jehovah is compelled to set it aside: "I will drive 
them out of my house ; I will love them no more" (9.15; 
compare 2. 9$:.). 

The Service Acceptable to Jehovah. Concerning the 
service of Jehovah the popular conception during the 
eighth century seems to have been that the bringing 
of offerings and sacrifices met all religious requirements. 



THE PROPHET HOSEA 69 

As a result the service of God came to be regarded as a 
purely external and formal thing. Against this mis- 
apprehension Hosea boldly raised his voice, "I desire 
goodness, and not sacrifice ; and the knowledge of God 
more than burnt offerings" (6. 6; compare 5. 6). The 
ceremonial was only a means to an end, and therefore 
secondary ; even at its best it could never take the place 
of pure and undefiled religion; if it ever displaced the 
weightier matters it became an abomination. In order 
to secure the divine approbation it must be backed by a 
right spirit and a pure life. This principle needed to 
be emphasized by Hosea the more strongly because in 
his days the ceremonial was far from being at its best; 
the religious celebrations were accompanied by all 
manner of excesses (4. 12ft*.; 6. 7fL). It were better to 
abolish sacrifice than to practice these things in the 
name of religion. Still worse, true Jehovah worship 
was unknown; it had become mixed with Canaanitish 
elements; in reality it was worship of the Baalim, the 
gods of the native Canaanites (2. 5$..; 4. 12ft*.; 8. 4ft*.; 9. 
9 ; 13.2). Such insult Jehovah could not endure (2 . 12, 

13). 

Promises of a Future Restoration. Other charac- 
teristic points in the prophet's teaching are connected 
with his promises of restoration. Judgment had be- 
come inevitable; the religious, moral, and political 
apostasy of Israel made it incumbent upon Jehovah 
to vindicate himself in order that true religion might not 
be lost to the world. But his love is unquenchable; 
in wrath he will remember mercy. The nation must 
die, but it will live again. 

(1) The Reestablishment of a Fellowship of Life 
and Love with Jehovah. Hosea, like the other proph- 



70 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

ets, pictures the restoration in the brightest colors. 
Amos had described the era subsequent to the restora- 
tion as one of extraordinary fertility and prosperity 
(9. 13); Hosea expresses a similar hope (2. 21, 22; 14. 
5-8). But this temporal prosperity is not the supreme 
goal of our prophet's aspirations; more important to 
him is the reestablishment of a fellowship of life and 
love with Jehovah, a fellowship that will make it 
possible for the divine purpose concerning Israel to 
be completely realized (2. 14, 19, 20; 14. 1-3; compare 
6. 1-3). 

(2) Repentance a Condition of Restoration. An- 
other truth emphasized by Hosea more than by Amos is 
the necessity of sincere, heartfelt repentance as a con- 
dition of restoration. "Hosea may be accurately styled 
the first preacher of repentance, yet so thoroughly did he 
deal with this subject of eternal interest to the human 
heart that between him and ourselves almost no teacher 
has increased the insight with which it has been ex- 
amined or the passion with which it ought to be en- 
forced." But whereas with us repentance, as, indeed, 
every religious experience, is individual, with the 
prophet it was national. The individual element in 
religion did not receive proper emphasis until about 
a century and a half after the time of Hosea. He 
considered repentance to imply the recognition that 
all sin was committed against God, a deep sorrow for 
wrongdoing, and an earnest determination to live hence- 
forth in a manner acceptable to God (14. 1-3). Sham 
repentance Jehovah despises (6. 4ff.). 

(3) Hosea' s Vision Limited to Israel. When Hosea 
describes the glories of the future he confines himself to 
the fortunes of the chosen people. Some of the prophets 



THE PROPHET HOSEA 71 

expect the subjugation of the outside nations by the 
redeemed Israel, some their destruction by Jehovah 
himself, others anticipate their conversion. Hosea is 
silent concerning their destiny. 

(4) The Messianic King. Another feature demand- 
ing attention is the personal element in his Messianic 
hope. Amos, without referring to an individual Mes- 
sianic king, announced that the future glory would 
center around the dynasty of David (9. 11); Hosea 
declared that the north and the south would be reunited 
under one head (1. 11), and again, "They shall seek. . . . 
David their king" (3. 5). That these passages refer to 
the establishment of the Messianic kingdom cannot be 
doubted; but commentators are not agreed as to 
whether the prophet had in mind a person, a second 
David (Jer.30.9; Ezek. 24. 23, 24; 37. 24, 25), or whether 
"David" is equivalent to "house (dynasty) of David" 
(Amos 9. 11). The references are perhaps not numerous 
enough to put the interpretation beyond question, yet 
it would seem that the personal view is the more 
natural. If so, Hosea is the first prophet to mention the 
ideal ruler in whom center the hopes and anticipations 
of later generations. 

Failure of Amos and Hosea to Save Israel. Amos 
and Hosea tried earnestly to prevent the downfall of 
the northern kingdom, but in vain. The vacillating 
policy of the court was bound to arouse the wrath 
of Assyria, and when finally in 725 B. C. an alliance 
was made with Egypt, the Assyrian king, Shalmaneser 
IV, dispatched an army into Israel. The king was 
captured, the country overrun, and the capital be- 
sieged. After three years, in the closing days of 
722 or the opening days of 721, Samaria fell, soon 



72 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

after the accession of Sargon II, the successor of 
Shalmaneser. With the fall of Samaria the northern 
kingdom disappeared from the scene of action. The 
fate of Jehovah religion now rested with the kingdom 
in the south. 






CHAPTER V 
ISAIAH 

JUDAH DURING THE EIGHTH CENTURY B. C. 

The Political Situation. The political, social, moral, 
and religious conditions in Judah during the activity 
of Isaiah and his younger contemporary Micah were 
essentially the same as in Israel during the ministry of 
Amos and Hosea. Uzziah became king of Judah about 
789. The Book of Kings says little concerning his 
reign. The Chronicler furnishes more complete in- 
formation. Combining the accounts of the two, we 
learn that Uzziah, who died between 740 and 736, left 
to his son Jotham a kingdom enjoying a great measure 
of external prosperity. 

Wars of Uzziah. While Jeroboam II was extending 
the borders of Israel in the north Uzziah was strengthen- 
ing the kingdom of Judah in the south. He waged 
successful wars against the Philistines and annexed 
part of their territory to his own. The Ammonites and 
Edomites were his vassals. He fortified Jerusalem 
and other cities, reorganized the army, and stocked the 
arsenals with ammunition of war. 

Development of the Internal Resources. In ad- 
dition, he was not unmindful of the arts of peace. He 
developed very extensively the natural resources of 
the country. Being a lover of agriculture, he possessed 
many fields which were carefully tilled; watchtowers 
were erected for the protection of the king's cattle, and 

73 



74 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

cisterns were dug for the collection and retention of 
the winter rains. 

Revival of Commerce. Uzziah was also interested 
in commerce. He rebuilt the port of Elath on the 
eastern arm of the Red Sea, by which foreign commerce 
might find its way into Judah. Sela, which had been 
captured by the king's father, Amaziah, commanded 
the trade route to southern Arabia. All this brought 
to Judah a prosperity unequaled since the days of 
David and Solomon. 

The Reigns of Jotham and Ahaz. Uzziah was 
Succeeded by his son Jotham, who continued his fa- 
ther's policy. Jotham's independent reign — he had been 
coregent with his father for some years (2 Kings 15. 5) — 
was very brief. Toward its close Judah was threatened 
with an invasion by the allied forces of Damascus and 
Israel. The real crisis, however, did not come until he 
had been succeeded by his son Ahaz. At first the hostile 
armies were successful, and "the heart of the king trem- 
bled, and the heart of his people, as the trees of the 
forest tremble with the wind" (Isa. 7. 2). In despair 
Ahaz, against the protest of the prophet Isaiah, ap- 
pealed for assistance to Tiglath-pileser IV, of Assyria. 
The Assyrians advanced with great rapidity, and the 
two nations were severely punished. Judah was saved, 
but at the cost of her national independence; hence- 
forth she became a vassal of the Assyrian king. 
During the remainder of his reign Ahaz seems to have 
continued loyal to Assyria. 

The Reign of Hezekiah. During the early years of 
Hezekiah Judah kept out of difficulties by quietly pay- 
ing tribute. The fall of Samaria in 722-721 made an 
impression that was not soon forgotten, and this im- 



THE PROPHET ISAIAH 75 

pression became intensified when in 720 Sargon II, 
king of Assyria, defeated an Egyptian army near 
Raphia, on the borders of Egypt. Nevertheless, the 
states along the eastern shore of the Mediterranean bore 
impatiently the Assyrian yoke. As early as 711 Judah 
came near being involved in a revolt against Sargon. 
The death of the latter in 705 was the signal for up- 
risings throughout the empire. Merodach-baladan 
made himself again king of Babylon, and he succeeded 
in stirring up rebellion in the west, in which Judah 
joined. Sennacherib, the successor of Sargon, was com- 
pelled to spend several years in the east, in order to 
quell disturbances there; but in 702-701 he marched 
westward. Tyre, Sidon, and other states fell before 
him, Judah was overrun (2 Kings 18. 13), Hezekiah 
was shut up in Jerusalem "like a bird in a cage," and 
the fall of the city was confidently expected. It was 
at this point that a Divine Providence compelled 
Sennacherib to raise the siege of the city and return 
to Nineveh. Jerusalem was saved. Little more is 
known of events in the reign of Hezekiah; even the 
year of his death is uncertain; he died sometime be- 
tween 697 and 686 B. C. 

MORAL, SOCIAL, AND RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS 

Moral and Social Conditions. Socially and morally 
Judah presented a dark picture during the latter part of 
the eighth century. Conditions are pictured most 
vividly in the prophecies of Isaiah and Micah, the Book 
of Kings dealing almost exclusively with political events. 
Of the two prophets Isaiah views the situation from the 
standpoint of the patrician, Micah from that of the 
humble peasant of the country. 



76 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

A vivid description of moral and social conditions is 
found in the fifth chapter of Isaiah. After a general 
denunciation, by means of a parable, of evil and wrong- 
doing, the prophet proceeds to point out in detail the 
most heinous crimes (8-24) . Foremost among the social 
evils was the greed of the nobles, manifesting itself in 
the attempts to build up large estates by forcibly eject- 
ing the smaller property holders (compare also Mic. 
2. 1, 2). The judges were quite willing to assist their 
powerful friends in robbing the weak (Mic. 3. 11); 
the poor widows and orphans, who were without de- 
fenders, were cruelly robbed and plundered, and even 
sold into slavery (Mic. 2, 9; Isa. 1. 23; 5. 23). The 
common people were oppressed by excessive taxation, 
that the magnificent palaces of the capital might be 
erected (Mic. 3. 10). Every man's hand seems to have 
been against his neighbor; even the most sacred rela- 
tions of life were disregarded (Mic. 7. 5, 6; Isa. 3. iff.). 

Responsibility of the Nobles. The nobles were 
chiefly to blame for the awful social and moral cor- 
ruption. Micah describes them as cannibals "who tear 
the flesh of the people from their bones and devour it" 
(3.2,3). Isaiah does not spare them : "They that lead 
Judah cause them to err, the spoil of the poor is in their 
houses; they crush my people. . . . The princes are 
companions of thieves, every one loveth bribes and 
chaseth after fees, but hath no regard for the cause of the 
widow and of the fatherless" (3. 12-15; 1. 23). The 
greed and rapacity of the nobles knew no limits; like 
highway robbers they pounced upon passers-by and 
stripped off their garments (Mic. 2.8); helpless women 
and children were their special prey. Under the guise 
of the law decisions were given in favor of the one 






THE PROPHET ISAIAH 77 

offering the largest bribe. The moral and social con- 
ditions in Judah at this time could hardly have been 
worse. 

Religious Conditions. The pictures of the religious 
life drawn by the two prophets are equally dark. 
Religion had become a matter of form. Ceremonial 
observances were thought to meet all religious require- 
ments, and, as in Israel, the misapprehension was wide- 
spread that, as long as the external acts of worship 
were scrupulously performed, the people were entitled 
to the divine favor and protection. "Jehovah the God 
of hosts is with us" was the favorite watchword; and 
the false notion implied in it seems to have found en- 
couragement even among the religious leaders (Mic. 
3. 11). In addition to this perverted Jehovah worship 
idolatry was quite common (Isa. 2. 8). Ahaz sought 
to please his Assyrian master by introducing foreign 
elements into the temple worship (2 Kings 16. ioff.). 
Hezekiah, it is true, sought to bring about a religious 
reformation, but it was hardly as sweeping as 2 Kings 
18. 4 would seem, at first sight, to indicate, for in the 
days of Josiah, about a century later, there were still 
found undisturbed high places reared by Solomon in or 
near Jerusalem (2 Kings 23. 13). 

THE PROPHET ISAIAH 

Isaiah a King Among Prophets. Amid the con- 
ditions described the task of a prophet of Jehovah 
was not an easy one. But when the need is greatest God 
is nearest; and in every crisis in Hebrew history he 
raised up a man or men capable of coping with its 
problems and perplexities. The eighth century crisis in 
Judah brought to the front Isaiah, who, after Moses, 



78 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

was the greatest prophet of the Hebrews. The per- 
sonality of Isaiah was such as to fit him for the mighty 
tasks before him. He was not a "pale-faced ascetic 
or a shrinking sentimentalist," he was a full-blooded 
man, a man of high mettle, who found it quite consist- 
ent with lowliness to pour contempt upon a weak, 
vacillating king, to fling burning scorn against mocking 
skeptics, to denounce falsehood and deceit with words 
that scorched and blistered. His one outstanding 
characteristic was strength — strength of character, 
strength born of intense convictions and of strong and 
lofty motives. Very truthfully says Ewald: "Of the 
other prophets all the more celebrated ones were distin- 
guished by some special excellence and peculiar power, 
whether of speech or of deed; in Isaiah all the powers 
and all the beauties of prophetic speech and deed com- 
bine to form a symmetrical whole; he is distinguished 
less by any special excellence than by the symmetry and 
perfection of all his powers. . . . There are rarely com- 
bined in one individual the profoundest prophetic 
emotion and purest feeling, the most unwearied, suc- 
cessful, and consistent activity amid all the confusions 
and changes of life, and, lastly, true poetic ease and 
beauty of style combined with force and irresistible 
power; yet this triad of powers we find realized in Isaiah 
as in no other prophet." Isaiah is indeed a king among 
the prophets. 

The Personal Life of Isaiah. Little is known of 
Isaiah's early life. His father was Amoz, who, accord- 
ing to an ancient Jewish tradition, was the brother of 
Amaziah, king of Judah, which would make Isaiah a 
cousin of Uzziah. Other reasons for believing Isaiah to 
have been of royal descent have been seen in his familiar- 



THE PROPHET ISAIAH 79 

ity with the successive monarchs of Judah and in the 
presence of the element Yahweh (Jehovah) in his 
name, which in the earlier periods seems to have been 
confined to royal names; but the evidence cannot be 
considered conclusive. However, his whole conduct 
and bearing make it certain that he was of high social 
rank; in which respect he differs from his contem- 
porary Micah, who was a simple peasant. 

The place of Isaiah's birth is not given; his residence 
seems to have been in the capital city Jerusalem, which 
is the center of all his thought and affection. He did 
not live apart from the world, but mingled freely with 
men, high and low, and was a keen observer of life 
about him. As has been indicated, he sustained close re- 
lations to the kings of his day, and was just as bold and 
fearless in denouncing them as he was in addressing the 
common people. 

The Prophet's Family. Isaiah had a family. His 
wife is called a prophetess (8. 3). Two sons are men- 
tioned, to whom he gave names symbolic of some as- 
pects of the nation's history which he touched upon in 
his message — Shear- jashub, which means, "a remnant 
shall return," and Maher-shalal-hash-baz, that is, 
''spoil speedeth, booty hasteth." 

The Last Days of Isaiah. About the last days 
of Isaiah we know nothing. A Jewish tradition says 
that he was slain by Manasseh. The apocryphal book 
called "Ascension of Isaiah" affirms that the prophet 
was sawn asunder; which statement is found also in 
Justin Martyr and may underlie Heb. 11. 37. 

Date of Isaiah's Activity. Isaiah's ministry began 
in the year in which King Uzziah died (6. 1), that is, 
some time between 740 and 736. It seems to have ended 



80 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

about the time of the sudden deliverance of Jerusalem 
from Sennacherib in 701. He may have prophesied 
some years later, but none of the utterances coming from 
him can be assigned with certainty to a later date. 
If Isaiah was born about 760, as is not improbable, he 
was a child when Amos appeared at Beth-el, and Hosea 
was still active when he began his prophetic career. It 
is not unlikely, therefore, that he was acquainted with 
the activities of these two prophets of Israel. 

THE MESSAGE OF ISAIAH 

Principal Divisions of the Book of Isaiah. The 

Book of Isaiah may be divided into seven portions of 
unequal length: I. Chapters 1-12, Prophecies concerning 
Judah and Israel coming from different periods of 
Isaiah's activity; II. Chapters 13-23, Prophecies con- 
cerning foreign nations; III. Chapters 24-27, Picture of 
a great world judgment, from which the people of 
Jehovah will escape; IV. Chapters 28-33, Group of 
discourses having for their subject chiefly the relations 
of Judah with Egypt and Assyria; V. Chapters 34, 35, 
Contrast between the destiny of Israel and that of Edom ; 
VI. Chapters 36-39, An historical section, dealing 
chiefly with the activity of Isaiah during the reign of 
Hezekiah; VII. Chapters 40-66, The restoration of 
Judah from exile. 

Integrity of the Book. Modern scholars are quite 
generally agreed in assigning sections III, V, and VII 
to a date later than that of Isaiah, the son of Amoz. 
Section VI, which is found with some variations in 2 
Kings i8ff., is thought by many to have been written 
subsequently to the time of Isaiah, and there are several 
other chapters, for example, 13. 1 — 14- 23; 21 ; 33, that 



THE PROPHET ISAIAH 81 

are looked upon with suspicion; but even if the argu- 
ments against all these sections were conclusive, Isaiah 
would still remain the greatest of the prophets; and 
from the utterances which may be assigned to him with 
a feeling of absolute assurance it is not difficult to form 
an adequate view of his work and teaching. 

Chronological Arrangement of the Prophecies. The 
arrangement of the separate utterances in the book is 
not chronological, but the historical allusions are defi- 
nite enough to enable one to assign most of the prophe- 
cies to definite dates, though in a few cases an element 
of uncertainty may remain: 
i. To the period before the Syro-Ephraimitic crisis 

in 735-734 seem to belong, 2. 2 — 4. 65 5. 1-24; 6; 

9. 8—10. 4; 5. 25-30. 

2. In connection with that crisis were delivered, 7. 1—9. 

7; 17. i-ii. 

3. In connection with the fall of Samaria, 28. 1-4. 

4. In connection with Sargon's invasion in 711, chapter 

20. 

5. In connection with Sennacherib's invasion and the 

events leading up to it, 1; 10. 5-34; 11. 1-9; 
14.24-32; 18; 22; 23; 28; 29; 30; 31. 

6. Of uncertain date, though probably coming from 

Isaiah, 15; 16; 17. 12-14; 19; Z 2 - 
The Great Arraignment, Chapter 1. Chapter 1 
owes its present position to the comprehensiveness of 
its contents, for it contains in brief form all the essen- 
tial elements of Isaiah's teaching. The utterance, 
which stands by itself, has been aptly described by 
Ewald as "The great arraignment.' ' Jehovah is the 
plaintiff, Judah the defendant, the prophet an inter- 
ested by-stander and go-between. The chapter falls 



82 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

naturally into two divisions. The first (2-20) calls at- 
tention to the moral and religious issues involved in the 
dispute between Jehovah and the people. Jehovah has 
chosen Israel and exalted it above all other nations, but 
it has basely rebelled against its Lord, and is even now 
suffering the consequences of its folly (2-9). The 
prophet assumes that the denunciation is resented by 
his hearers, who accuse him of unfairness, because he 
takes no notice of the care with which they observe 
the external forms of religion. He replies by saying 
that they are seeking Jehovah by the wrong means : the 
whole ceremonial system as practiced by them, sacri- 
fices, feast days, and even prayers, are an abomination 
to Jehovah (10-15). On the other hand, moral refor- 
mation and a righteous life, the only service acceptable 
to God, are neglected by them (16, 1 7) ; hence they stand 
before Jehovah as condemned criminals. Nevertheless 
he is still merciful; if they show themselves worthy 
he is ready to pardon (18), and if henceforth they will 
live an obedient life prosperity will be their portion (19) ; 
but if they continue in rebellion death and destruction 
will overtake them (20). 

The prophet seems convinced that the proposition will 
not be accepted ; at any rate, he immediately proceeds 
to announce the judgment which is now inevitable. 
However, the judgment is not for the purpose of anni- 
hilation, but of discipline: it will result in the purifi- 
cation of those who are still sensitive to the divine mercy 
and in the destruction of the obstinate. The announce- 
ment of judgment opens with a dirge over the moral 
decay of Jerusalem. At one time righteousness had 
her home there, but now it is filled with assassins. The 
ruling classes are utterly corrupt — what can be ex- 



THE PROPHET ISAIAH 83 

pected of the others (21-23)? Judgment will surely 
come (24, 25), to result in the restoration of Zion to her 
former purity (26, 27) and in the destruction of those 
who persist ki rebellion (28). When the awful blow 
falls the nothingness of the idols will be revealed (29-31). 

The Realization of the Glories of the Messianic Age 
after a Period of Judgment, Chapters 2-4. Chapters 
2-4 form a separate collection, which contains (1) an 
introduction (2. 2-4), describing the glory of Zion as 
the center of the universal kingdom of God; (2) a series 
of discourses (2. 5 — 4. 1), in which the prophet attacks 
the evils and vices of the present and announces judg- 
ment upon all; and (3) a conclusion (4. 2-6), which 
sets forth the disciplinary effects of the judgment: the 
ideal set forth in 2. 2-4 will be realized. 

The Glories of the Messianic Age, the Present Cor- 
ruption, and the Inevitable Judgment, Chapter 2. 
We have, then, first of all, a sublime picture of the 
glories of the Messianic age (2. 2-4). According to 
this ideal picture Judah is to be the spiritual teacher 
of the nations, but it cannot carry out this commission 
as long as it remains in its present spiritual condition. 
Therefore the prophet appeals to the people: If the 
ideal picture is ever to be realized it is high time that 
a beginning should be made ; and if no one else does it, 
let us Jews at least follow the instruction of Jehovah (5). 
But suddenly he thinks of the hopeless condition of 
the people and cries out in despair: What is the use 
even to try, for thou hast already cast off the people, and 
not without reason ; indeed, their rejection is inevitable 
in view of their rebellion against Jehovah, as seen (1) 
in the use of divination ; (2) in their greed and luxurious 
living; (3) in their trust in human defenses; (4) in the 



84 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

practice of idolatry (6-8). Jehovah must vindicate 
his majesty in order to bring man to his senses (9-1 1). 
This he will do by sending a terrible judgment, that 
will destroy the handiwork of God and man (12-16). 
Then Jehovah alone will be exalted while man will be 
humiliated, and the idols will be swept away (17-22). 

The Judgment upon Judah, 3. 1-15. From the 
general judgment the prophet turns to a more specific 
judgment upon Judah, which will result in the disso- 
lution of all social order (3. 1-7). The blow is due to 
the people's attitude of defiance toward Jehovah, and 
the incompetence and injustice of the rulers (8-12). 
In verses 13-15 the prophet portrays a judgment scene. 
Jehovah, at once accuser and judge, comes to vindicate 
the cause of the poor against the oppressors. 

Judgment upon the Wanton Women of Jerusalem, 
3. 16 — 4. 1. In 3 . 16 — 4. 1 a crushing attack is made upon 
the wanton women of Jerusalem. Like Amos, Isaiah 
is convinced that the self-indulgence and luxury of the 
women is one cause of the extortion practiced by their 
husbands ; therefore they must share in the judgment. 

Blessings in Store for the Redeemed Remnant, 
4. 2-6. Out of the judgment a remnant will escape 
which will enjoy forever the favor and blessing of God. 
The future glory is presented under three aspects: 
(1) extraordinary fertility of the soil (2); (2) purifica- 
tion from all uncleanness (3, 4); (3) the presence of 
Jehovah himself and the accompanying benefits (5, 6). 

The Corruption of the People and the Inevitable Doom, 
Chapter 5. Chapter 5 deals with the same subjects as 
chapters 2-4, the corruption of people and rulers and 
the inevitable doom. The chapter falls naturally into 
three parts : 1 . The parable of the vineyard, which sets 



THE PROPHET ISAIAH 85 

forth the glaring ingratitude of Israel and its rejection 
by Jehovah (1-7). 2. An exposition of the parable in 
the form of six woes, (1) upon the greedy nobles who 
rob the poor of their property, so that only a few retain 
residential rights (8-10); (2) upon those who spend 
their time in dissipation and as a result lose all spiritual 
perception (11-17); (3) upon the mocking skeptics who 
do not heed the prophetic warnings and recklessly in- 
crease their guilt (18, 19); (4) upon the morally per- 
verse who set aside all moral standards (20) ; (5) upon 
the self-conceited who think that they do not need 
the wisdom of Jehovah (21); (6) upon the dissolute and 
corrupt judges (23). This awful condition of affairs 
demands speedy judgment (24). 3. Jehovah will send 
a powerful army that will utterly destroy land and 
people (25-30). 

The Vision of Isaiah, Chapter 6. Chapter 6 con- 
tains an account of the inaugural vision of Isaiah, 
placed in its present position as an introduction to 
7. 1 — 9. 7, to add weight to the contents of these chap- 
ters. In the death year of King Uzziah Isaiah passed 
through a great spiritual crisis which prepared him 
for his prophetic ministry and impressed upon him cer- 
tain truths which determined the character of all his 
prophetic utterances. One day, while Isaiah was 
worshiping in the temple, meditating perhaps upon the 
character of Jehovah and the disloyalty of his con- 
temporaries, he had a vision of Jehovah in all his 
splendor, sitting upon a throne, surrounded by his 
heavenly courtiers, who were singing his praises, 
giving special emphasis to the divine holiness and its 
glorious manifestation in all the earth (1-4). He be- 
comes conscious of his own tmcleanness and of that of 



86 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

his people, but immediately he is cleansed ; whereupon 
he hears the divine voice calling for some one to proph- 
esy to the people; Isaiah volunteers and receives the 
commission (5-8). At the same time he is assured that 
the effects of his preaching will be disappointing; 
it will result in increasing blindness and stubbornness 
(9, 10). This will bring severe judgment from Jehovah, 
out of which only a small remnant will escape (11-13). 
Isaiah's Advice to Ahaz during the Syro-Ephraimitic 
Crisis, Chapter 7. The prophecies in 7. 1 — 9. 7, which 
are closely connected, portray the working out in 
history of the latter part of Isaiah's vision : in the first 
place, the hardening of the hearts of the people; 
secondly, the setting apart of a holy seed out of which 
might grow a new kingdom of God. Chapter 7.1-3 in- 
troduces us to the Syro-Ephraimitic crisis. The com- 
bined armies were approaching; Ahaz and the people 
were in consternation; an appeal to Tiglath-pileser of 
Assyria seemed the only way of escape (1,2). To allay 
the fears of Ahaz was the purpose of Isaiah's interview. 
The prophet can see no cause for alarm, for the hostile 
armies are about to be extinguished by Assyria (3, 4). 
Besides, Jehovah has an interest in the struggle, and he 
will stand by Ahaz if the king will only have faith 
(5-9). To overcome the king's doubts Isaiah offers 
him a sign, which he refuses (10-12). Whereupon the 
prophet announces that Jehovah will give him a sign to 
prove the divine power, which will show itself, first, 
in the driving away of the enemy, and then in a severe 
judgment upon Judah (13-17). There follow four 
pictures of the devastation wrought by the hostile 
army: 1. Flies and bees (18, 19); 2. The hired razor 
(20); 3. The population will be reduced to the pas- 



THE PROPHET ISAIAH 87 

toral life of the desert (21, 22); 4. The most costly- 
vineyards will be overrun by thorns and thistles (23- 

25). 
Isaiah's Appeal to the People and His Rejection, 

8. 1-15. When Ahaz rejected the advice of Isaiah, 
the prophet turned to the people with the same 
message. The first few verses of chapter 8 are only a 
repetition of the announcement made to Ahaz in 7. 
14-17. At first the prophet promises deliverance; 
this he does by the twofold sign of Maher-shalal-hash- 
baz (1-4). But he immediately follows with the threat 
that the Assyrian will overrun Judah (5~8a). Never- 
theless, Judah will not be entirely destroyed, for Jehovah 
will come to the rescue and frustrate all schemes 
directed against the rule of Jehovah on Mount Zion 
(8b-io). To gain the hearing of the people Isaiah de- 
clares that the only reason why he sets himself against 
the policy of the king and the opinion of the people is 
the fact that he is under divine direction (11-15). 

Isaiah and His Disciples, the Imminent Doom and 
Future Glory, 8. 16 — 9. 7. When the prophet failed 
to make an impression on the people, he turned from 
them and retired within the circle of his immediate 
followers. To them he commits a record of the proph- 
ecies delivered before king and people and prepares 
them by further instruction for a more auspicious time 
when they might take up the work afresh. Isaiah con- 
siders his name and the names of his two sons pledges 
of the divine faithfulness, intended for the unbelieving 
people (16-18). In preparing his disciples for the fu- 
ture he pictures to them the darkness and despair 
of the days to come. There will be spiritual darkness, 
when the people will resort to the black arts for guidance 



88 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

(19, 20), and outward distress, when men will roam 
through a dreary land, maddened by hunger, and seek- 
ing relief in vain (21, 22). 

But a brighter day will come, and the districts that 
suffered most will experience the greater joy (9 . 1 ) . The 
light and joy of a great deliverance will break upon the 
people, the Assyrian will be overthrown, every vestige 
of war will disappear, and finally the Messianic king 
will set up his reign of righteousness and peace (2-7). 

Israel's Rebellion and Punishments, 9. 8 — 10. 4. The 
next section, 9. 8 — 10. 4, to which may have belonged at 
one time 5. 25-30, contains a series of prophecies di- 
rected against the northern kingdom. Down to 9. 21 
(+5- 2 5) we have a retrospect of historical judgments, 
by which Jehovah has sought to bring the people to re- 
pentance, but in vain; hence a final blow will fall 
(5. 25-30). The utterance in 10. 1-4 is in the nature of 
a woe. 

After a statement as to why and upon whom the 
judgments have fallen (8. 8-10) the prophet describes 
the first judgment, the aggressions of Israel's power- 
ful neighbors in the east and west (11, 12). Since the 
people continued in rebellion a second blow came in the 
form of some sudden catastrophe by which the state 
was robbed of its leaders. The people were so corrupt 
that Jehovah felt compelled to withdraw his com- 
passion even from the helpless widows and orphans 
(13-17). There followed, as the third judgment, a 
state of anarchy and civil strife (18-21). In 10. 1-4 
follows a woe upon the maladministrators of justice. 
The unjust judges will receive their dues in some day of 
slaughter. 

The Arrogance of the Assyrians and their Overthrow, 



THE PROPHET ISAIAH 89 

10. 5-34. The rest of chapter 10 contains the first 
oracle aimed directly against Assyria. Isaiah believed 
that Judah deserved punishment and that Assyria was 
appointed to execute it, but he also believed that the 
Assyrians had gone beyond Jehovah's purpose. Here 
he even declares that they do not recognize at all the 
sway of Israel's God; they glory in their own wisdom 
and strength, by which they claim to have achieved 
past successes, and proudly they boast that Jerusalem 
will soon fall before them (5-1 1, 13, 14). Jehovah 
will vindicate his supremacy by overthrowing the 
proud Assyrian power (12, 15-19). This decisive 
manifestation of Jehovah's power will result in the 
conversion of a remnant of Judah (20-23). After an- 
other message of comfort to the troubled people (24- 
27), the prophet describes ideally the enemy's march 
from the northern frontier to the gates of Jerusalem, 
where he will be annihilated just as the goal of his 
ambition seems to be within reach (28-34). 

The Messianic Kingdom and the Joy of the Re- 
deemed, Chapters n f 12. The overthrow of Assyria 
will prepare the way for the setting up of the Messianic 
kingdom. The prophet announces the advent of the 
Messianic king, describes his person and character, 
and praises his just administration (11. 1-5). The re- 
sult of his reign will be the restoration of the peace of 
paradise, affecting both man and beast, and the uni- 
versal spread of righteousness and the knowledge of 
Jehovah (6-9). The influence proceeding from the new 
religion will attract the nations of the earth (10); the 
dispersed Jews will be gathered from the ends of the 
earth, and the united north and south will subdue the 
neighboring nations (11-16). The returning exiles will 



go PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

celebrate the glorious deliverance with joyous songs of 
praise, because the anger of Jehovah is now turned 
away, and expressions of confidence for the future (12. 
1, 2). In verse 3 the prophet assures the people that 
Jehovah will always be near them to supply their every 
need. Whereupon the members of the redeemed com- 
munity exhort one another to declare Jehovah's praises 
to the world (4-6). 

The Downfall of Babylon, 13. 1 — 14. 23. With 
chapter 13 begins the second main division of the Book 
of Isaiah, consisting of prophecies against various na- 
tions that came into hostile contact with Israel and 
Judah. The first utterance, 13. 1 — 14. 23, deals with 
the downfall of Babylon. The historical background is 
that of the exile. The Jews are represented as held 
captive by the Babylonians, but the capture of Babylon 
is imminent, when the exiles will be released. Chapter 
13. 2-22 describes the downfall of Babylon and the 
events leading up to it. The nations appointed to 
execute judgment upon the cruel city are gathered upon 
the mountains (2-4), and they spread terror everywhere 
(5-8). Amid convulsions of nature the city will be 
attacked and taken; some will flee, but the majority 
of the population, old and young, will be cruelly 
massacred (9-16). The Medes are the executioners of 
the awful judgment upon Babylon (17-19), which will 
remain under a curse forever, deserted by man and 
inhabited only by desert animals (20-22). The imme- 
diate result of the destruction of Babylon will be the re-' 
lease of the exiled Jews and their restoration to felicity 
in their own land (14. 1-4). This promise is followed 
by a song of triumph over the downfall of the Babylo- 
nian king. The whole earth rejoices that the oppressor 



THE PROPHET ISAIAH 91 

is gone (4D-8) ; but Sheol is disturbed when his arrival 
there becomes known (9-1 1). The prophet reflects 
upon the fate of the fallen king. Never would the 
thought of being cast into Sheol have entered the mind 
of the proud monarch (12-15). Suddenly the prophet 
transports the reader from Sheol to the battlefield, 
where the dead king lies, exposed to the derision of 
men who glory in his downfall (16-19). The lack of 
proper burial and the extermination of his family are 
the severest judgments which can befall him, according 
to Oriental ideas (20, 21). The oracle closes with a 
reassertion of the speedy overthrow of Babylon (22, 23). 

The Overthrow of the Assyrians, 14. 24-32. The 
prophecy against Babylon is followed by two inde- 
pendent oracles belonging to a different historical situ- 
ation: one announcing the overthrow of the Assyrians 
during an invasion of Palestine (24-27), the other 
threatening Philistia with a serious calamity proceeding 
from the north (28-32). 

An Oracle against Moab, Chapters 15, 16. Chapters 
15, 16 contain an oracle against Moab. The greater 
part of the utterance seems descriptive of a great calam- 
ity that has already befallen Moab. In one night the 
chief cities of Moab have been laid waste (15. 1); the 
distressed survivors crowd the sanctuaries (2-4); 
finally they are compelled to leave the land to find refuge 
in Edom (5-8) ; and still greater troubles are awaiting 
Moab (9). The Moabites send presents to Jerusalem 
and appeal for help, but their appeal is not heeded (16. 
1-5). No matter how much the author may wish to see 
the calamity averted there is no relief; it must run its 
course (6-12). Thus far the original prophecy spoken 
"in time past" (13) seems to go. Isaiah takes it up 



92 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

and announces that it will surely be fulfilled in a few 
years (14). 

Speedy Overthrow of Damascus, Israel, and an 
Unnamed Foe, Chapter 17. Chapter 17. 1-11 contains 
an announcement of the speedy overthrow of Damascus 
and Israel (compare chapters 7 and 8). Damascus 
and Israel shall surely fall (1-6); this manifestation 
of the divine power will lead to a return of many to 
Jehovah (7, 8). The apostasy of Israel is responsible 
for its overthrow (9-1 1). Verses 12-14 are an oracle 
announcing the sudden destruction of "many peoples," 
perhaps the Assyrians, as they advance against the 
people of Jehovah. 

Reply to Ambassadors of Ethiopia, Chapter 18. 
Chapter 18 is somewhat obscure. It seems to contain 
the prophet's reply to Ethiopian ambassadors who 
came to induce the king of Judah to join Ethiopia in an 
attack upon Assyria. The prophet tells the ambassa- 
dors to return, for Jehovah has already decreed the 
downfall of Assyria (1-6). When the Ethiopians see 
the humiliation of Assyria they will do homage to 
the God of Israel (7). 

The Burden of Egypt, Chapter 19. Chapter 19 is 
entitled "The burden of Egypt." Jehovah will execute a 
terrible judgment upon Egypt. Anarchy and social dis- 
order will distress the land ; sorcery will be appealed to, 
but no relief will come; finally a "fierce ruler" will 
oppress the people (1-4). The Nile will dry up, agri- 
culture will cease, and other industries will be paralyzed 
(5-10). The traditional wisdom of Egypt will fail, and 
the nation will stagger "as a drunken man staggereth in 
his vomit" (11-15). When the Egyptians discover that 
Jehovah is the cause of all these calamities they will 



THE PROPHET ISAIAH 93 

be filled with terror (16, 17), and in the end a complete 
change will take place in their attitude toward Jehovah 
and Israel. The language of the Jews will be spoken in 
Egypt (18), the worship of Jehovah will be established 
there (19-22), and peaceful intercourse will begin be- 
tween Israel and Egypt in the southwest and Assyria 
in the east, until all three will become the people of 
Jehovah (23-25). 

Symbolic Act Illustrating the Success of Sargon in 
Palestine, Chapter 20. Chapter 20 contains the in- 
terpretation of a symbolic act performed by Isaiah. 
In the year in which the army of Sargon besieged 
Ashdod, that is, in 711, there was a party in Judah 
urging an alliance with Egypt and Ethiopia against 
Assyria. The symbolic act is to warn King Hezekiah 
against the alliance, for the success of Assyria is assured. 

Oracles against Babylon and Arabia, Chapter 21. 
In chapter 21. 1-10 is another oracle against Babylon. 
The prophet sees a siege of the city (1,2). At first he is 
agitated and appalled (3, 4). For a time he is uncer- 
tain as to the outcome, but finally he beholds the fall 
of the city (5-9), which he makes known to the people 
(10). Verses 11, 12 contain an oracle, put in enigmatic 
language, concerning Edom, and 13-17 predict an in- 
vasion and destruction of Arabia. 

Condemnation of the People's Conduct, 22. 1-14. 
Chapter 22. 1-14 is a condemnation of the people's 
conduct during an attack upon the capital city. They 
give themselves to wild rejoicing, while the occasion 
demands grief and mourning (1-3). The prophet is 
filled with shame (4, 5), and tries to show to the people 
that their relief was not due to measures of defense, but 
to a divine providence ; hence the present is not a time 



94 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

for thoughtless revelry, but for serious reflection and 
penitence (6-13). Jehovah will hold them to account 
for their disregard of him (14). 

Denunciation of Shebna, 22. 15-25. The rest of 
chapter 22 deals with a prominent politician in Jeru- 
salem. Shebna, an official in the royal palace, is de- 
nounced by Isaiah and threatened with deposition and 
banishment (15-19); Eliakim is nominated as his 
successor (20-25). 

Prophecy against Tyre and Sidon, Chapter 23. The 
prophecy in chapter 23 is directed against Tyre and 
Sidon, the chief representatives pi Phoenician power and 
civilization. The ships of Tarshish, homeward bound, 
are summoned to wail over the downfall of the Phoeni- 
cian cities (1-5), and the inhabitants of the coast are 
ironically urged to seek refuge beyond the sea (6, 7). 
The present calamity is decreed by Jehovah, who is 
determined to destroy the Phoenicians and will pursue 
them even beyond the sea (10-14). After the lapse 
of seventy years Tyre will be restored and converted to 
Jehovah (15-18). 

A Great World Judgment, Chapters 24-27. Chap- 
ters 24-27 form a distinct section of the Book of Isaiah, 
coming probably from the postexilic period. They 
portray in vivid colors a great world judgment and the 
escape of God's faithful people from its terrors. 

Imminence and Severity of the Judgment, Chapter 
24. A world judgment is about to be executed (24. 1-3), 
on account of the wickedness of men (4-6); joy will 
vanish from the earth ; everywhere will be lamentation 
(7-9); even "the city" is left desolate (10-12); only a 
small remnant will escape (13). The prophet hears 
rejoicing over the dawn of a better day, but he de- 



THE PROPHET ISAIAH 95 

clares it to be premature (14-1 6a), and portrays once 
more in vivid colors the imminent judgment (160-2,3). 

Hymns of Thanksgiving and the Blessedness of 
the Messianic Age, Chapter 25. Chapter 25 falls 
naturally into three divisions. Verses 1-5 are a hymn 
of thanksgiving in which the author, speaking in the 
name of the redeemed community, praises God for the 
overthrow of the enemy and the mercy vouchsafed to 
his people. Verses 6-8 picture the blessedness of the 
Messianic age. This is followed by another hymn 
of thanksgiving praising God for the deliverance of his 
people (9) and the complete destruction of Moab (10-12). 

Song of Praise for Jehovah's Wonderful Deliver- 
ance, 26. 1-19. Chapter 26. 1-19 is another song of 
praise : Jehovah has been the salvation of his city and 
has caused the downfall of the hostile power (1-6) > 
judgment alone can teach righteousness to the nations, 
mercy only hardens them (7-10). Remembering the 
past mercies of Jehovah, the author prays for new 
blessings, the overthrow of the enemies and peace for 
Israel (1 1-1 5 ) . The dark experiences of Israel in the past 
have not been without wholesome effects, but the 
crisis is by no means over. One of the most perplexing 
problems seems to have been the scantiness of the popu- 
lation (16-18); therefore Jehovah will increase the 
numbers by a resurrection of the dead members of 
the community (19). 

The Salvation of the People of Jehovah, 26. 20 — 27. 13. 
Chapter 26. 20 is the continuation of 25. 8, from which 
it is separated by the lyrical sections. The people of 
Jehovah are bidden to hide "until the indignation be 
overpast " (20, 21) ; for Jehovah will execute a terrible 
judgment (27. 1). Another poem pictures Jehovah's 






96 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

satisfaction with his vineyard and permanent interest 
in its welfare (2-6). The people are summoned to 
heed the lessons taught by the calamities of the past, 
else greater disaster may befall them (7-1 1) ; but if they 
return to Jehovah he will restore to them his favor and 
bring back the exiles from the ends of the earth (12, 13). 

The Relation of Judah to Egypt and Assyria, Chap- 
ters 28-32. Chapters 28-32 contain a series of utter- 
ances delivered during the years between the accession 
of Sennacherib in 705 and the deliverance of Jerusalem 
in 701. Chapter 28. 1-4 was probably delivered origi- 
nally before the fall of Samaria, but may have been 
repeated by Isaiah at the later time. 

The Imminent Judgment and its Disciplinary Value, 
Chapter 28. The section begins with a woe upon the 
drunkards of Samaria and an announcement of the 
doom of the city (28. 1-6). The prophet beholds sim- 
ilar dissipation in Jerusalem, accompanied by an un- 
willingness to listen to his counsel. The people trust 
in human covenants and defenses rather than in Jeho- 
vah, but they will find in the end that their policy 
leads to destruction (7-22). There follow two parables 
addressed, perhaps, to Isaiah's disciples, to set forth 
the divine purpose in disciplining his people. Just 
as the farmer must prepare the field for the reception of 
the grain by plowing, so Jehovah must plow his people 
by judgment before they become receptive to his 
teaching (23-26). Threshing is not bruising; it is 
necessary to secure the grain, and the method is adapted 
to the material : so judgment is not simply a process of 
causing pain; it serves a higher end, and it also is 
adapted to the material with which God has to deal 
(27-29). 



THE PROPHET ISAIAH 97 

No Escape from the Divine Judgment, which will 
Bring the People to their Senses, Chapter 29. Jeru- 
salem is about to be besieged by a mighty enemy 
(29. 1-4), but suddenly Jehovah will appear and cause 
the enemies to vanish (5-8). The people listen to 
the words of the prophet with incredulity, and he 
tells them that their want of spiritual perception is the 
result of the divine wrath (9-12). They have an en- 
tirely false idea of the character of Jehovah and his 
requirements, therefore he must do startling things, 
such as have been announced (13, 14). The prophet 
pronounces another woe, this time upon the poli- 
ticians who secretly enter into conspiracy with Egypt; 
their schemes are contrary to the divine purpose and 
therefore are bound to fail (15, 16). The prophecy 
closes with a picture of the ideal future when the people 
will heed the word of Jehovah (17-19), when op- 
pression and mockery will cease (20, 21), and the re- 
deemed remnant will serve Jehovah alone (22-24). 

Failure of an Alliance with Egypt; Dawn of the 
Messianic Era, Chapter 30. Chapter 30 opens with 
a woe upon the "rebellious children" who have sent 
an embassy to conclude a treaty with Egypt. It 
will avail nothing, for Egypt invariably disappoints 
those trusting in her (1-7). The proposed treaty is 
the crowning evidence of their rebellion against Jehovah 
and their unwillingness to listen to his representatives 
(8-1 1); therefore they shall be broken to pieces like a 
potter's vessel (12-14). Their only salvation is in re- 
liance upon Jehovah, but having rejected him their 
doom is sealed (15-17). On the other hand, the faith- 
ful will enjoy the divine favor (18, 19) ; they will have 
divinely appointed teachers (20, 21), idolatry will 



98 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

cease (22), and nature will be completely transformed 
(23-26). The era of prosperity will be inaugurated by 
the destruction of Assyria (27-33). 

Jehovah the Determiner of Jerusalem's Destiny, 
Chapter 31. The thoughts expressed in chapter 30 are 
reiterated in 31. 1 — 32. 8. The alliance with Egypt will 
avail nothing (31. 1-3); the fate of Jerusalem is in 
Jehovah's hand; he alone can destroy or save (4, 5); 
the character of the people will be transformed (6, 7) ; 
and the Assyrian will be overthrown (8, 9). 

The Messianic King and His Kingdom ; the Impend- 
ing Doom; the Divine Mercy, Chapter 32. The Assyr- 
ian overthrown, the ideal kingdom of God will be set 
up under an ideal king and ideal officials ; individuals 
and society will be regenerated (32. 1-8). The rest of 
chapter 32 is addressed to the women of Jerusalem 
who, by their unconcern and indifference, have aroused 
the wrath of the prophet (9). Trouble is impending, 
therefore they would better wail and lament (10-12). 
The desolation will spread everywhere (13,14) until the 
divine spirit is poured out, which will alter the ap- 
pearance of nature and transform the character of the 
inhabitants (15-20). 

Woe upon an Unnamed Oppressor; the Glory of 
the Messianic Age, Chapter 33. The woe with which 
chapter 33 opens is addressed to an unnamed op- 
pressor. If the prophecy comes from Isaiah, he is 
probably the Assyrian. Jehovah, who has shown an 
interest in Jerusalem in days gone by, will speedily 
disperse the troublers of his people (1-6). At present 
the land may be in distress and mourn bitterly (7-9), 
but Jehovah is about to arise and scatter the enemy 
(10-12). When the divine manifestation is seen the 



THE PROPHET ISAIAH 99 

ungodly in Jerusalem will tremble (13, 14), but the 
righteous will dwell securely with Jehovah (15, 16). The 
prophecy concludes with a picture of the future glory. 
The king will appear in his beauty (17), the present 
danger will be a thing of the past (18, 19), and Jeru- 
salem will dwell in security and prosperity under the 
rule of Jehovah (20-23); sickness will disappear and 
pardon will be granted to all (24). 

Contrast between the Destiny of Edom and that 
of Israel, Chapters 34, 35. In chapters 34, 35, which 
are quite generally assigned to a postexilic date, the 
future of Edom is contrasted with that of Israel. Edom 
will be humiliated, Israel will be raised to glory. Chapter 
34 opens with a vivid description of the terrors of a 
world judgment (1-4). Edom, which has shown special 
hostility against the people of Jehovah, will suffer most. 
Its population will be slaughtered (5-8) and the land 
will become desolate, the haunt of desert animals 
forever (9-17). 

Far different will be the lot of Israel. The soil of 
its land will be blessed with extraordinary fertility 
(35. 1, 2) ; human infirmities of every sort will disappear 
and all needs will be abundantly supplied (3-7); a 
highway will be built, over which the exiles may safely 
return to Zion, there to live in the presence of their 
God in joy and felicity forever (8-10). 

Isaiah's Activity during the Reign of Hezekiah, 
Chapters 36-39. Chapters 36-39 are an historical 
section, found with some variations — the most im- 
portant being the absence of the song of Hezekiah — in 
2 Kings 18-20. The narratives are inserted here to 
illustrate the part played by Isaiah in one of the greatest 
crises in the history of Judah, the invasion of Sen- 



ioo PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

jiacherib in 701. Three important events are treated 
at some length: (1) the efforts of Sennacherib to ob- 
tain possession of Jerusalem; (2) Hezekiah's sickness 
and recovery; (3) the embassy of Merodach-baladan. 

Sennacherib's Advance Against Jerusalem, and its 
Deliverance, Chapters 36, 37. In the fourteenth year 
of Hezekiah Sennacherib, king of Assyria, overran 
Judah (36. 1) ; finally he sent an army against Jerusa- 
lem (2). Representatives of Hezekiah meet the leader, 
who demands the surrender of the city (3-10). They 
urge him to speak in Aramaic, so that the people may 
not understand the threatening message (11); the 
Rabshakeh refuses and points out to the people that 
submission will be more advantageous than resistance 
(12-20). Discouraged and in despair, the messengers 
return to Hezekiah (21, 22), who now appeals to the 
prophet Isaiah for advice (37. 1-5). The messengers are 
sent back to the king with a message of encouragement 
(6, 7). The Rabshakeh returns to the headquarters 
of Sennacherib at Libnah (8). When a rumor reaches 
Sennacherib that an Egyptian army is advancing, he 
makes another attempt to secure possession of Jerusa- 
lem and sends a letter to Hezekiah urging submission 
(9-13). On receipt of the letter Hezekiah goes to the 
temple to pray (14-20). The answer to the prayer 
comes in the form of a message from Isaiah, assuring the 
king that Sennacherib will not be able to harm the city 
(21-35). The prediction is fulfilled, and Sennacherib 
is compelled to return to Nineveh, where he is assassi- 
nated (36-38). 

Hezekiah's Sickness and Recovery, Chapter 38. 
Chapter 38 records Hezekiah's sickness and recovery. 
Hezekiah, sick unto death (1), prays that his life may 



THE PROPHET ISAIAH 101 

be spared (2, 3). The petition is granted, and fifteen 
years are added to his life (4-8) ; whereupon Hezekiah 
utters a song of thanksgiving for his recovery (9-20). 
Verses 20, 21 seem to be out of place; the former 
mentions the prophet's prescription for the malady of 
the king; the latter, the desire of Hezekiah for a sign 
that the words of the prophet will be fulfilled. 

The Embassy of Merodach-baladan and Isaiah's 
Threat, Chapter 39. Merodach-baladan sends an em- 
bassy to Hezekiah, apparently to congratulate him 
on his recovery (39. 1 ) . Hezekiah receives it gladly and 
shows the men all his resources (2). Isaiah comes to 
the court to find out the purpose of the embassy (3). 
When told that the king has shown the ambassadors 
all his resources (4), he announces a future exile to 
the land from which the embassy has come (5-7). 
Hezekiah expresses his satisfaction that the calamity 
is not to come during his reign (8). 

THE WORK AND TEACHING OF ISAIAH 

Vision of the Divine Holiness. The key to Isaiah's 
activity may be found in his inaugural vision, an ac- 
count of which is contained in the sixth chapter. Dur- 
ing this vision Isaiah saw Jehovah as a God of infinite 
holiness and glorious majesty. Amos emphasized the 
righteousness of Jehovah, Hosea his loving-kindness; 
Isaiah saw the source of these qualities in the divine 
holiness; righteousness, loving-kindness, and all other 
divine qualities, being simply the expressions of the 
inner holiness, which was, so to speak, the heart of 
the Godhead. Isaiah's conception of the holiness of 
Jehovah is admirably expressed in the words of Kirk- 
patrick: "Primarily the Hebrew root from which the 



io2 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

word is derived seems to denote separation. It repre- 
sents God as distinct from man, separate from the 
creation which he called into existence. Then, since 
limit is the necessary condition of created things, and 
imperfection and sinfulness are the marks of humanity 
in its fallen state, the term grows to denote the sepa- 
ration of God from all that is limited, imperfect, and 
sinful. But it does not rest here in a merely negative 
conception. It expands so as to include the whole 
essential nature of God in its moral aspect. . . . His 
purity and his righteousness, his faithfulness and his 
truth, his mercy and his loving-kindness, nay, even his 
jealousy and his wrath, his zeal and his indignation — 
these are the different rays which combine to make 
up his holiness." 

Isaiah's Conception of the Divine Majesty. Holiness 
is the basis of the divine majesty. To Isaiah Jehovah 
alone was holy, which meant to him that he alone 
was God in the true sense of the term. But if so, he 
was supreme Lord over all and exercised his sovereignty 
everywhere. This is the meaning of the song of the 
seraphim, "The whole earth is full of his glory," that 
is, of his glorious manifestation. "The whole earth 
is full of the signs of Jehovah's sovereignty; he dwells 
on high exalted over all; he reigns supreme alike in 
the realm of nature and the sphere of human history ; 
and the crash of kingdoms, the total dissolution of the 
old order of the Hebrew world, which accompanied 
the advance of Assyria, is to the prophet nothing else 
than the crowning proof of Jehovah's absolute dominion 
asserting itself in the abasement of all that disputes his 
supremacy." 

Isaiah's Estimate of Himself and of His Contem- 



THE PROPHET ISAIAH 103 

poraries. With this sublime vision of the nature and 
character of Jehovah there came to the prophet a 
clearer vision of himself and his contemporaries, which 
found expression in the lament: "Woe is me! for I am 
undone; because I am a man of unclean lips, and I 
dwell in the midst of a people of unclean lips." 

Principles Determining the Relation of Jehovah 
to Man. Another truth that impressed itself upon 
Isaiah at this time was that the relation of Jehovah 
to man was determined, on the one hand, by the divine 
character ; on the other, by the attitude of man toward 
God. This recognition made prominent two aspects 
of the divine holiness: in the first place, love for the 
good ; in the second, hatred for the evil and sinful. The 
first aspect manifested itself in Jehovah's attitude to- 
ward Isaiah, who was yet sensitive to the divine in- 
fluence and apparently longed to be in a proper con- 
dition to commune with his God : his sin was removed, 
and he was appointed a messenger of Jehovah. The 
same aspect appears in the promise that a holy seed 
will be preserved (verse 13). The other aspect is seen 
in the announcement of judgment upon the stubborn 
people. 

Contents of Isaiah's Inaugural Vision. To sum up, 
the truths impressed upon Isaiah in the vision are: 
(1) The holiness of Jehovah; (2) The majesty of Je- 
hovah; (3) The corruption and stubbornness of his 
contemporaries ; (4) The ethical basis of the relation of 
Jehovah to Israel and the world ; (5) The certainty of an 
awful judgment; (6) The preservation of a remnant; 
(7) This remnant is to be the seed of a new Israel. 

Significance of the Vision. The vision of Jehovah 
was the inspiration and dominating idea of Isaiah's 



io 4 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

activity and teaching. It is not strange in the light of 
such a vision that his eyes were opened so that he saw 
the uncleanness of the people; nor is it strange that 
his standard of living for himself and his people was 
raised; nor is it surprising that he strove for forty 
years, in the face of untold obstacles, to lift the nation 
to the pure heights of his new ideals. (With this sub- 
I lime vision of God he knew no sphere of life where the 
presence of Jehovah might not be felt, or where the 
battle for righteousness might not be fought ; and it was 
his sole ambition to fight this battle until the entire na- 
tional life should be regenerated, until worship should be 
so pure, commerce so clean, and politics so unselfish 
and honest that all might be offered as a holy and 
acceptable service to Jehovah. 

Isaiah's Manifold Interests and Activities. The 
broad outlook of Isaiah resulted in a variety of interests 
and activities. Isaiah was a patient and painstaking 
teacher of religious truth, a bold and fearless preacher 
of righteousness, a sane and courageous reformer, a 
keen and farseeing statesman, a large-hearted champion 
of the rights of the people, and a divinely enlightened 
seer penetrating the veil hiding the future and antici- 
pating the glorious era when the kingdom of God, a 
kingdom of peace and righteousness, would be es- 
tablished upon earth. 

Isaiah as a Teacher of Religion. As a religious 
teacher Isaiah sought, first of all, to impress upon the 
minds and hearts of his contemporaries a more adequate 
conception of the nature and character of Jehovah ; for 
he, like the other prophets, was convinced that the 
cause of Israel's apostasy was the lack of a true knowl- 
edge of Jehovah. He agrees with his predecessors in 



THE PROPHET ISAIAH 105 

their religious conceptions, but he gives special em- 
phasis to two phases of the divine character that were 
burned into his innermost soul during the inaugural 
vision, namely, the divine holiness and majesty. 
"Holy, holy, holy," was the cry which Isaiah heard 
from the lips of the adoring seraphim, and he chooses 
the title "The Holy One of Israel" to call attention, on 
the one hand, to the holiness of Jehovah; on the other, 
to the obligation resting upon Israel as the chosen 
people of Jehovah to reflect the holiness of its God 
in life and conduct. It has already been indicated 
what was the content of the divine attribute of holi- 
ness as Isaiah conceived it. 

Why did Isaiah Emphasize the Divine Majesty? 
He was led to emphasize the divine majesty by what 
he saw in the nation. "Those vast estates made by dis- 
possessing small holders from their ancestral holdings, 
those splendid palaces with their sumptuous banquets 
and riotous revels, those extravagant wardrobes and 
costly jewels with which the grand ladies of Jerusalem 
adorned themselves, those horses and chariots, those 
forts and towers, those fleets and armies, of which the 
statesmen boasted as impregnable defenses, those 
private chapels with their gold and silver images, those 
secret rites performed by cunning soothsayers from 
Philistia and the East, that reckless indifference to 
truth and right and justice which seemed compatible 
with the most profuse outward ceremonies of wor- 
ship — what were all these but a deification of wealth 
and power, and selfish pleasure, and reckless ambition, 
an indolent defiance of the supreme majesty of Jehovah 
of hosts?" 

Had Israel recognized the majesty of Jehovah, these 



io6 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

excesses would have been impossible ; but now Jehovah 
must vindicate his character, and he will do this by a 
terrible manifestation of his sovereignty: "Enter into 
the rock, and hide thyself in the dust, from before the 
terror of Jehovah, and from the glory of his majesty. 
The lofty looks of man shall be brought low, and the 
haughtiness of men shall be bowed down, and Jehovah 
alone shall be exalted in that day" (2. 10, 11). In that 
day he will prove to the trembling and astonished peo- 
ple his paramount supremacy; he will demonstrate 
that he is a jealous God, who can tolerate no rival, and 
who cannot be satisfied with a half-hearted allegiance. 

This is the conception of Jehovah emphasized by 
Isaiah, and he believed that, if the people could be im- 
pressed strongly enough with a clear conception of the 
holiness and majesty of Jehovah, they would cease their 
rebellion, for with the knowledge there would come the 
power to live a life that, in a measure at least, would 
reflect the holiness of God. 

The Service Acceptable to Jehovah. Isaiah's teach- 
ing concerning the service acceptable to Jehovah is 
only the reflection of his teaching concerning the divine 
character. To a holy God a cold, heartless, formal 
service, without a spirit of true devotion and the back- 
ing of a righteous life, must be an abomination. Such 
was the service of Israel, and Isaiah condemned it in 
the strongest terms (compare 1. 10-15). With Isaiah 
religion did not consist in the performance of certain 
ceremonial acts, though acts of worship might have 
their proper place ; . nor in the acceptance of a certain 
creed, though fixed beliefs might be of considerable 
importance; with him religion was primarily a matter 
of heart and life. Hence he was convinced that the 



THE PROPHET ISAIAH 107 

divine requirements had to do primarily with life and 
conduct, and life in all its aspects and relations. 

Isaiah a Preacher of Right Living and a Social 
Reformer. This being the conviction of the prophet, 
he considered it his chief duty to assist his contem- 
poraries toward realizing the lofty ideals of Jehovah 
in their own lives, in their social relations, in the na- 
tional life, and in their relations with other nations. 
In chapters 2-5 we see how as a preacher of right living 
and a social reformer he endeavored to transform moral 
and social conditions in Judah. He knew that a peo- 
ple's morals have greater influence in determining its 
destiny than kings and armies. Therefore, when seeing 
himself face to face with conditions which, unless a 
remedy could be found, meant the certain doom of 
the nation (1. 21-23; 3. 12-15; 5- 8-24), he roared, 
with the voice of a lion, against social and moral cor- 
ruption: "Woe unto them that join house to house, that 
lay field to field! . . . Woe unto them that rise up 
early in the morning, that they may follow strong 
drink; that tarry late into the night, till wine inflame 
them! . . . Woe unto them that call evil good, and 
good evil! . . . Woe unto them that are wise in their 
own eyes, and prudent in their own sight! . . . Woe 
unto them that are mighty to drink wine, and men of 
strength to mingle strong drink; ^fhich justify the 
wicked for a reward, and take away the innocence 
of the guiltless from him! . . . Woe unto them that 
decree unrighteous decrees, and to the writers that 
write perverseness!" (5. 8-24; 10. 1.) Not only did 
he utter general denunciations, but when he found it 
necessary to attack individuals he did so without fear 
or hesitation (22. 15ft.)- 



io8 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

Isaiah's Social and Ethical Ideals. Isaiah was not 
content with denouncing the present abuses; he was 
equally anxious to hold before the people lofty social 
and moral ideals, which he constantly urged them to 
attain. Perhaps no better brief summary of the ethical 
and social principles which the prophet considered 
essential to the nation's welfare is found in the Book 
of Isaiah than that in i. 16, 17, " Cease to do evil; 
learn to do well; be anxious about right doing; set 
right the oppressor; help to his right the fatherless; 
take the part of the widow." 

Isaiah's Activity as a Statesman. In addition to 
being a religious teacher, a preacher of righteousness and 
a social reformer, Isaiah was a statesman. A funda- 
mental factor in his attitude as a statesman was his 
conception of the mission of the nation. Nowhere is 
this conception indicated more clearly and forcefully 
than in the parable of the vineyard in 5. 1-7. Among 
other things this parable teaches that the prophet 
thought of the nation not as a ''chance conglomeration of 
individuals,' ' with no purpose or destiny. He was con- 
vinced that back of the nation was God ; it was he who 
formed it, who nourished it and brought it up (1. 2), 
who cared for it, who had for it a lofty purpose and 
mission, and who did his utmost to prepare the nation 
for its divinely appointed task. And this God ex- 
pected results corresponding to the labors expended ; if 
these were not forthcoming judgment became in- 
evitable. 

Isaiah's Attitude during the Syro-Ephraimitic Crisis. 
This conception of the nation and its mission com- 
pelled the prophet to take an active interest in the 
external politics of Judah. While this interest mani- 



THE PROPHET ISAIAH I09 

fested itself throughout the greater part of his min- 
istry, it is especially in two crises of Judah's history 
that he attempted, though without success, to urge his 
own foreign policy upon king and people. The first 
attempt is described in chapters 7 and 8. It occurred 
about 754 B. C, a few years after the beginning of 
Isaiah's prophetic career. Rezin of Damascus and 
Pekah of Israel had united against Judah, purposing 
to depose its king and place upon the throne a tool of 
their own. The ultimate object of the invasion was 
probably to compel the southern kingdom to join 
the other nations in their efforts to resist the westward 
march of the Assyrian armies. When the news of the 
advance of the allies spread, the heart of the king 
"was moved, and the heart of his people, as the trees of 
the forest are moved with the wind." In his con- 
sternation King Ahaz saw no way of escape but to 
throw himself upon the mercy of Tiglath-pileser IV of 
Assyria. Desiring to allay the king's fear and to pre- 
vent the carrying out of the king's policy, Isaiah sought 
an interview with Ahaz. 

Reasons for Isaiah's Opposition to the Policy of 
Ahaz. Two reasons underlay the prophet's opposition. 
His inspired vision saw that both the political and the 
religious welfare of Judah demanded loyalty to Jehovah. 
An appeal to Tiglath-pileser would destroy the in- 
dependence of Judah, would place her in a position of 
servitude, would open the door for continued annoy- 
ances, and would sap the nation's resources through the 
payment of annual tribute and participation in the 
Assyrian wars. Besides, the nation's higher interests 
were at stake. Alliances with foreign nations had 
always opened the way for grave religious perils; this 



no PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

would be true again. In addition, Isaiah considered 
the very act of entering an alliance a sign of disloyalty 
to Jehovah. Isaiah was convinced that only a fearless 
and calm reliance on Jehovah could guide Judah safely 
through the present trouble and distress. The choice 
must be made between a policy of faith and one of un- 
belief. 

Isaiah's Conception of Faith. Isaiah's conception 
of faith is brought out very clearly in three statements 
on the subject, found in 7. 9; 28. 16; 30. 15. From 
these passages it is evident that he understood faith 
to be a very practical thing, namely, a calm and 
courageous reliance upon God, who is able to prevent 
the evil and to bring to pass the good; such reliance 
to result in the non-use of any means that might 
seem a denial of God or be contrary to his will. 

Later Events a Justification of the Prophetic At- 
titude. It was this kind of faith that the prophet 
demanded of King Ahaz in this crisis of the nation's 
history. Ahaz, weak, vain, and incompetent, could 
not appreciate such faith; he preferred an alliance 
with Assyria to one with Jehovah. Temporary re- 
lief came, but at what cost? The independence of 
Judah. From this time onward the kingdom was 
without independence, except when Judah rebelled, and 
then she suffered severely for her rashness. Assyria's 
rule was followed for a little while by that of Egypt; 
it in turn was succeeded by the Chaldean supremacy, 
until finally state, city, and temple were destroyed, 
and the people were carried into exile to weep over 
their misfortunes by the rivers of Babylon. Thus. later 
events justified the attitude of the prophet-statesman. 
Not that Isaiah supposed for a moment that the ad- 



THE PROPHET ISAIAH in 

vance of Assyria could be checked permanently, but 
complications with Assyria might be postponed in- 
definitely. When, without Judah's fault, such com- 
plications would become inevitable, it would be time 
enough to devise ways and means that would make 
them of least disadvantage to Judah. 

Isaiah's Attitude during the Crisis of 705-701. 
Isaiah has sometimes been accused of inconsistency 
in his foreign policy, because in a later crisis he op- 
posed with all his might the efforts to free Judah from 
the lordship of Assyria. This accusation is due to a 
complete disregard of the changes in the historical 
situation. About thirty years had passed. During the 
greater part of this period Judah had remained loyal 
to Assyria, though throughout all the years there had 
been in the nation an anti- Assyrian party, which sought 
to stir up a revolt against the Assyrian king. The 
same party was pro-Egyptian in its tendencies, seek- 
ing to form an alliance with the empire of the Pha- 
raohs. A crisis came about 705 , when a change of kings 
in Assyria encouraged several of the vassal states to 
throw off the yoke. In Palestine and Syria rejoicing 
was great. Isaiah warned Judah, but the pro-Egyptian 
party grew stronger and stronger. Many thought 
that with the aid of Egypt the Assyrian yoke might 
easily be broken while the new king, Sennacherib, 
was trying to restore order in the east. It was in this 
crisis, about 702 or 701, that Isaiah delivered those 
powerful appeals, found especially in chapters 29-31, 
in which he urged the people to remain loyal to Assyria 
and to desist from courting the favor of Egypt. The 
appeals fell upon deaf ears. Again, later events 
showed the wisdom of Isaiah's attitude. The pro- 



ii2 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

Egyptian party prevailed and revolt against Assyria 
broke out. Chapters 36,37 tell the story of the calamity 
that befell the misguided people. Had the policy of 
the prophet-statesman been adopted things would have 
been far different. When finally conditions appeared 
hopeless, appeal was made to Isaiah, and the greatness 
of his character shows itself in the readiness with which 
he responded to the cry of a frenzied king and people. 
The faith in Jehovah's willingness and power to help 
which prompted the policy of 734 also prompted the 
utterances of 701. 

The Redeemed Remnant. Though Isaiah is a 
prophet of judgment, he is not a prophet of despair. 
The present corruption of the people made judgment 
inevitable, but from the judgment he saw emerge a 
redeemed and purified remnant, the nucleus of a new 
nation, ready to enter upon its glorious mission to man- 
kind. This hope finds expression in the name of 
Isaiah's son Shear- jashub (7.3), which is interpreted in 
10. 20, 21, "And it shall come to pass in that day, that 
the remnant of Israel, and they that are escaped of the 
house of Jacob, shall no more again lean upon him that 
smote them, but shall lean upon Jehovah, the Holy 
One of Israel, in truth. A remnant shall return, even 
the remnant of Jacob, unto the mighty God." The 
salvation of a remnant is promised also in 4. 3, 4; 1. 
24-27; 6. 13; 8. 16-18; etc. 

The Messianic Kingdom. The redeemed remnant 
will form the nucleus of the new kingdom of God during 
the Messianic era. Conditions in this kingdom will 
be a reflection of the character of Jehovah, who will 
be in the midst of his people (4. 5,6). The most com- 
plete description of the glories of this kingdom or of 



THE PROPHET ISAIAH 113 

the Messianic era is found in 2. 2-4, a passage which 
may be a quotation from an earlier prophet. Four 
features of the future glory are here emphasized: (1) 
Zion will be recognized as the center of Jehovah's 
universal dominion; (2) The spread of true religion 
will be accomplished not by the force of arms but 
through the moral influence going out from Zion; (3) 
There is to be no external world power; the nations 
will retain political independence ; Jehovah, not Israel, 
will rule the world (compare also 19. 23-25; the na- 
tions that fail to submit will be destroyed) ; (4) War 
will come to an end; international disputes will be 
settled by arbitration, Jehovah himself being the 
arbiter. That the new kingdom will be a kingdom of 
purity, peace, and righteousness is taught also in other 
passages, for example, 1. 25-27; 4. 3, 4; 9. 4-7; 11. 4-9. 

The Inviolability of Jerusalem. Closely connected 
with Isaiah's expectation that Zion will be the center 
of the future kingdom of God is his hope of the inviola- 
bility of the sacred city. The clearest expressions of 
this hope are found in connection with the crisis of 701, 
but it is by no means confined to that event ; with rare 
exceptions it is reflected in all the utterances of the 
prophet. In this he differs from his contemporary 
Micah, who taught that Jerusalem should be plowed 
like a field. Certainly, it follows from the conditional 
character of all prophecy that, should Zion become 
so corrupt that a holy God could no longer dwell there, 
it too must be given over to judgment. The disregard 
of this condition by later generations caused much 
trouble to the prophet Jeremiah. 

The Nature and Character of the Messianic King. 
In the picture of 2. 2-4 Jehovah himself is repre- 



ii 4 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

sented as ruling in Zion. There are, however, several 
passages (9. 1-7; 11. 1-5; 32. 1) in which Isaiah prom- 
ises the advent of an ideal ruler, who will rule over the 
new kingdom in the place of Jehovah. This king is 
described as a descendant of David, who will be en- 
dowed with extraordinary, superhuman qualities that 
will equip him for his God-appointed task. According 
to 11. 2 the Spirit of Jehovah will rest upon him and 
furnish him with virtues of various kinds. Six are 
enumerated, which may be grouped in three pairs of 
two each: the first pair intellectual, the second prac- 
tical, the third religious. Wisdom and understanding, 
or discernment, are the first two. The ideal ruler will 
possess the ability to discern and estimate things 
correctly, and the moral and intellectual qualifications 
to make proper use of this knowledge. The next 
group includes counsel, that is, the ability to find ways 
and means and adapt them to the proper ends and the 
ability to make right resolutions at the proper time, 
and might, that is, the power to carry out his plans and 
resolutions. These two qualities furnish the basis for 
two of the names in 9. 6, "Wonderful Counselor, 
Mighty God," literally, "a wonder of a counselor, a 
God of a hero.'' The remaining terms, "knowledge" 
and "fear," are both to be connected with "of Jeho- 
vah." The new ruler will possess the knowledge of 
Jehovah and the fear of Jehovah. The former denotes 
insight into the character of Jehovah and his claims 
upon men; the second, which is the common Old 
Testament expression for piety, means a reverential 
attitude that will result in loving obedience. 

Character of the Reign of the Messianic King. The 
character of the new king's rule is also described by 



THE PROPHET ISAIAH 115 

Isaiah. The two titles, ''Everlasting Father, Prince 
of Peace," in 9. 6, describe it as paternal and peaceful. 
The succeeding verse also declares that to peace there 
will be no end, and that the king will rule in justice and 
righteousness. The poor and the needy will be the 
objects of his special care (11. 4). In all his actions he 
will be guided by a right attitude toward Jehovah and 
continued reliance upon him. 

The Foreshadowing of the Church. From the pas- 
sages mentioned it is seen that Isaiah's hope for the 
future centered not in the nation as a whole, but in a 
small faithful nucleus. In this he agrees with his 
predecessors, but Isaiah goes beyond them in organ- 
izing the faithful into a group of disciples and devoting 
himself to their instruction after he had failed with 
king and people (8. i6ff.). "The formation of this 
little community was a new thing in the history of 
religion. Till then no one had dreamed of a fellow- 
ship of faith dissociated from all national forms, main- ■ 
tained without the exercise of ritual services, bound 
together by faith in the divine word alone. It was the 
birth of a new era in the Old Testament religion, for 
it was the birth of the conception of the church, the 
first step in the emancipation of spiritual religion from 
the forms of political life — a step not less significant 
that all its consequences were not seen till centuries 
had passed away." 



y 



CHAPTER VI 
MICAH 

THE PERSON AND LIFE OF THE PROPHET 

Isaiah and Micah. A few years after Isaiah en- 
tered upon his prophetic career there appeared another 
prophet in Judah, by the name of Micah. Both cher- 
ished lofty conceptions of the character of Jehovah 
and of the obligations resting upon his people, and 
both had firmly established convictions concerning 
the nature and ultimate triumph of the kingdom of 
God. A comparison of the utterances of the two men 
also brings out resemblances in style, thought, topics, 
and even in phrases; but the contrasts between the 
two in origin, training, and sphere of activity are 
equally marked. The one was a city prophet, of high 
social standing and the counselor of kings; the other, 
a simple country man, born of obscure parentage and 
in close touch and sympathy with the peasant class. 

The Home of Micah. For information concerning 
the prophet Micah we are dependent almost exclusively 
upon the book bearing his name. From it we learn 
that he was a Morasthite (i. i), that is, an inhabitant 
of Moresheth, a village probably identical with More- 
sheth-gath in i. 14. This verse suggests that it was 
near the city of Gath. Jerome refers to it as a small 
village near Eleutheropolis, about twenty-five miles 
southwest of Jerusalem, near the Philistine border. 
Nothing is said of his family. His parents seem to 

116 



THE PROPHET MICAH 117 

have been pious and ardent worshipers of Jehovah; 
at least, the name given to the son, Micah, in its fuller 
form, Micaiah (which means, Who is like Jehovah?) 
appears to contain a confession of faith on their part. 

The Date of Micah's Activity. Outside of the 
Book of Micah the prophet is mentioned only in Jer. 
26. 18, 19. From that passage it would seem that 
Micah was responsible, in part at least, for the reforma- 
tion under Hezekiah (2 Kings 18. 4). Neither the be- 
ginning nor the close of Micah's activity can be definitely 
dated. Chapter 1. 1 assigns his ministry to the reigns 
of Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah — in round numbers, 
to the years between 740 and 700. That Micah prophe- 
sied in the days of Hezekiah is affirmed also in Jer. 
26. 18, 19, where Mic. 3. 12 is quoted. The words 
quoted are so closely connected with the preceding 
verses that they carry with them the entire third chap- 
ter; and certain striking similarities between it and 
chapters 1 and 2 place it almost beyond doubt that 
all three chapters come from approximately the 
same period. But internal evidence — for example, 
1. 6 — makes it clear that 1. iff. belongs 'to the years 
immediately preceding the fall of Samaria, which, ac- 
cording to 2 Kings 18. 2, occurred in the sixth year of 
Hezekiah. Internal evidence, therefore, would seem to 
support that part of the testimony of the title which 
assigns the activity of Micah to the reign of Hezekiah. 

The book contains no positive evidence that Micah 
prophesied during the reigns of the two earlier kings, 
but the utterances in 6. 1 — 7. 6, which by many are 
assigned to the reign of the successor of Hezekiah, 
Manasseh, seem to find a most suitable occasion in the 
reign of Ahaz, or perhaps even that of Jotham ; hence 



n8 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

there is good reason for believing that Micah began to 
prophesy about 735 B. C, and that his ministry con- 
tinued until about 700 B. C. The conditions in Judah 
during this period are described above, on p. 75JBE- 

THE MESSAGE OF MICAH 

Arrangement of the Book of Micah. The Book of 
Micah falls naturally into three parts : Chapters 1 and 
2 ; chapters 3-5 ; and chapters 6 and 7, each part 
beginning with "Hear ye." Each division contains a 
description of the present corruption, an announce- 
ment of imminent judgment, and one or more pictures 
of a bright and glorious future. It would be erroneous, 
however, to suppose that the three parts represent 
three connected discourses delivered to the people on 
three different occasions. They are rather three col- 
lections of the essential contents of the oral utterances 
of the prophet during his entire ministry. The prin- 
ciple of arrangement is not chronological, but, in a 
broad sense, logical ; that is, the collector or collectors 
kept in mind the general scheme — corruption, judg- 
ment, salvation of a remnant, promise — but within 
the general scheme the separate utterances were ar- 
ranged with less care and without the introduction of 
connecting links. As a result abruptness in transition 
is frequent, and at times it is difficult to trace the exact 
line of thought. 

Announcement of Judgment upon Israel and Judah, 
Chapter 1. The first part begins with an announce- 
ment of judgment upon Israel and Judah (1. 2-16). 
It opens with a sublime apostrophe to the nations of the 
earth and a magnificent picture of the approach of 
Jehovah in judgment (2-4). Samaria will be laid in 
ruins on account of her sins (5-7). In time destruction 



THE PROPHET MICAH n 9 

will also come upon Judah (8-16). The prophet puts 
the announcement to Judah in the form of a lament 
over the fall of its cities and towns. 

The Present Social and Moral Corruption the Cause 
of the Judgment, Chapter 2. Chapter 2 sets forth 
the causes that make the judgment announced in 
chapter 1 inevitable. It opens with a woe upon the 
unjust nobles: They have robbed others, but their 
ill-gotten gain will be taken from them (1-4). The 
prophet foresees that an attempt will be made on the 
part of the people and false prophets to silence him by 
declaring his utterances to be absurd ; hence he insists 
that his message is in perfect accord with the principles 
underlying the divine government of the world. God 
promises good only to him who walks uprightly. This 
Israel has failed to do, therefore disaster must come 
(5-8) . There is no escape from the wrath of Jehovah : 
as they have driven the poor from their homes so they 
will be driven from their possessions into exile (9, 10). 
The prophet next describes the kind of prophet they 
would like to hear, one who promises peace and pros- 
perity and flatters the self-righteous hypocrites (11). 
This Micah cannot do. He can see nothing but disaster 
in the immediate future, therefore his message is 
primarily one of judgment and doom. Nevertheless, he 
too has a message of salvation, though not for the 
immediate future nor for all the listeners, but only for 
the loyal worshipers of Jehovah. These, purified 
through suffering, will be assembled again, Jehovah 
will redeem them and restore them to their old home 
(12, 13). 

The Present Degradation and the Inevitable Doom, 
Chapter 3. The second section, chapters 3-5, presents 



120 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

several contrasts between the present degradation and 
the future exaltation. Chapter 3 furnishes a vivid de- 
scription of the present corruption. Civil and ecclesi- 
astical leaders alike disregard the principles of righteous- 
ness and equity and abuse the privileges of their offices 
(1-3). They show no mercy, hence Jehovah will re- 
fuse to listen to them in the hour of judgment (4). 
The false prophets are largely responsible for the de- 
cline in virtue; they have become mercenary and care 
nothing for the truth. The priests also are actuated by 
a spirit of avarice and greed. In the face of the wide- 
spread moral corruption they presume to rely upon 
the favor of Jehovah (5-1 1). On account of this fail- 
ure to do the will of Jehovah, Zion will be utterly 
ruined (12). 

The Exaltation of the Remnant, Chapters 4, 5. But 
the ruin will not continue forever. There will come 
a turn for the better. A remnant will survive the 
catastrophe, and this remnant, restored to its for- 
mer home, will be raised to honor and glory. This 
exaltation is the subject of chapters 4 and 5. How- 
ever, the two chapters do not form a continuous dis- 
course; they are rather a collection of short oracles, 
all dealing with the same subject, but describing the 
Messianic age from various points of view and coming 
from different periods of the prophet's activity. 

The Present Distress and the Future Glory, Chapter 
4. The first utterance contains a sublime picture of 
Zion's future glory as the center of the universal re- 
ligion (4. 1-5). When the era of Messianic felicity 
dawns the dispersed of Israel will share in its glory. 
Jehovah will bring back and heal a remnant of those 
whom he cast off in his anger. The remnant will 



THE PROPHET MICAH 121 

develop into a strong and powerful nation, and will 
no more suffer from weak and incompetent rulers, 
for Jehovah himself will rule forever (6-8). 

The distant future, the prophet is convinced, will be 
all brightness and glory, but in the immediate future 
he can see nothing but gloom and despair. He beholds 
the impending destruction; yea, he already hears 
the lamentation (9) ; nevertheless, Jehovah will re- 
deem his people from all their enemies (10). In the 
next oracle the prophet again starts from the present 
calamity, and ends with a promise of complete victory 

(11-13)- 

The Messianic Iting and the Blessings of the Mes- 
sianic Age, Chapter 5. In 5. 1 the prophet returns 
once more to the condition now present or imminent; 
but immediately he rises from the troublesome present 
to the glorious future, which he describes with a fullness 
not seen elsewhere in the book. He introduces the 
personal Messiah, who is to be born in Bethlehem (2). 
Though temporary distress is inevitable, the sequel 
will be glorious (3). Like a kind shepherd the Messiah 
will feed his flock (4). He is peace personified, and his 
rule will be peace. Should an enemy attack the king- 
dom of God there will be a superabundance of leaders 
to hasten to its defense (5, 6). In the succeeding 
verses the prophet considers the restored nation's re- 
lation to other peoples. To some it will dispense bless- 
ings and prove a source of increased vitality (7); to 
others it will bring terror and destruction (8). He 
prays that Israel may be successful in its conquests 
(9). When the people have learned to rely upon 
Jehovah he will destroy all implements of war (10, 
11), and remove all witchcraft and soothsayers (12). 



122 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

Idolatry will come to an end (13, 14), and Jehovah will 
be the avenger of his people (15). 

Jehovah's Controversy with Israel, 6. 1-8. With 
6. 1 begins a new series of utterances. The prophet 
pictures, in dramatic form, a judicial contest between 
Jehovah and his people. Jehovah himself presents 
the accusation. He calls attention to the countless 
blessings bestowed upon the nation during its past 
history, and complains that his loving care has been 
met with basest ingratitude (1-5). Against this ac- 
cusation the people seek to defend themselves by ex- 
pressing their willingness to do anything to win the 
divine favor. If they have fallen short it is due to their 
ignorance concerning the real requirements of Jehovah 
(6, 7). To this plea reply is made that ignorance is 
inexcusable, since the demands of Jehovah have been 
made known again and again (8). 

The Desperate Condition of the People, 6. 9 — 7. 6. 
With verse 9 begins a new accusation and denunciation. 
Jehovah denounces, in righteous indignation, the injus- 
tice, oppression, and violence prevalent in the capital, 
and threatens judgment in the form of an invasion, 
which will result in the devastation of the land (9-16). 

The accusation is continued in 7. 1-6, but now the 
prophet is the speaker. He describes the desperate 
condition of the people: anarchy, injustice, judicial 
corruption everywhere; even the tenderest ties of 
family relation are disrupted. 

Prayer for Deliverance and its Answer, 7. 7-20. 
In verse 7 the penitent community, now sitting in 
darkness, pleads for deliverance, and expresses the 
assurance that Jehovah will bring it out into the light 
and give it the victory over the arrogant enemy (7-10). 






THE PROPHET MICAH 123 

To this expression of confidence Jehovah, or the prophet 
in his name, responds with words of encouragement: 
the loyalty of the petitioner will be rewarded with a 
glorious restoration (11-13). In verse 14 the prophet 
becomes the spokesman of the people. He pleads for 
the fulfillment of the promise of restoration, and re- 
joices in the terror and humiliation of the nations of 
the world (14-17). 

The book closes with a doxology. The author, 
reveling in the thought of a glorious future, sings a 
hymn in honor of Jehovah, who alone is God; he 
celebrates the divine attributes of loving-kindness, 
compassion, and faithfulness, about to be manifested 
in the deliverance promised by Jehovah (18-20). 

THE TEACHING OF MICAH 

Jehovah and His Requirements. The teaching of 
Micah is simple and forceful. In many respects it re- 
sembles that of his predecessors. His theology in- 
sists on the holiness of Jehovah and the universality 
and righteousness of the divine government of the 
world. He deals with all, including Israel, on the basis 
of ethical principles. As long as his people do right 
they will enjoy the divine favor (2. 7), but if they turn 
against him they must suffer punishment. Jehovah's 
good will is secured not by a careful observance of the 
ritual, or by the bringing of sacrifices, whatever their 
intrinsic value, but by a life in accord with the princi- 
ples of righteousness, by the diligent practice of kind- 
ness and brotherliness, and by a living fellowship with 
God in the spirit of humility, which should ever govern 
the intercourse of weak and sinful man with a holy and 
perfect God (6. 6-8). 



124 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

The Inevitable Doom. The prophet did not deceive 
himself into an expectation that his high moral and 
religious ideals would be sufficiently attractive to bring 
about a complete transformation in the whole nation. 
He foresaw that the majority would continue in re- 
bellion and that, therefore, a destructive blow must 
fall which would make an end of the national existence 
of both Israel and Judah (i. 2-16; 2. 10; 3. 12; etc.). 

The Messianic Age. But he was just as strongly 
convinced that a remnant would be saved, and that 
under the Messianic king this remnant would enjoy a 
life of permanent peace and prosperity. In his de- 
scription of the Messianic king Micah passes beyond 
Amos and Hosea, and agrees essentially with Isaiah, 
except that he adds the birthplace of the ideal ruler 
(5. 2-6). Through the moral influence going out from 
the remnant (5. 7) the knowledge of Jehovah will 
spread to all nations, and many will flock to him for 
instruction (4. 1-4). 

Greatness of the Eighth Century Prophets. Never 
again in the history of the Hebrew people, and one 
might almost say, never again in the history of the 
human race, arose within one brief lifetime (755-735 
B.C.) four men who left a greater and more permanent 
impression upon the religious development of the 
human race than did the four divinely inspired leaders 
Amos, Hosea, Isaiah, and Micah. They, more than 
any other set of men during the Old Testament period, 
were responsible for the preservation and growth 
of the religion out of which sprang, at a later time, 
Christianity. 



CHAPTER VII 
JEREMIAH 

POLITICAL CONDITIONS IN JUDAH DURING THE CENTURY 
PRECEDING THE FALL OF JERUSALEM 

The Reigns of Manasseh and Amon. In the open- 
ing section of Chapter V the political history of Judah 
is traced to the death of Hezekiah, some time between 
697 and 686. He was succeeded by his son Manasseh. 
According to 2 Kings 21. 1 the new king was only 
twelve years old when he began to reign, and he con- 
tinued upon the throne for fifty-five years. Th > in- 
formation concerning political events in his reign is 
meager. He seems to have continued to pay tribute 
to the Assyrian kings, though 2 Chron. 33. 11 states 
that he brought upon himself the wrath of the king of 
Assyria and was carried in chains to Babylon. On the 
whole, the political situation seems to have remained 
as it was under Hezekiah. 

About 641 B. C. Manasseh was succeeded by his 
son Amon, who reigned two years. During his rule 
also the political situation seems to have remained 
unchanged. For some reason dissatisfaction broke 
out among the king's servants, and he was assassinated, 
perhaps, indirectly at least, through the influence of the 
prophetic party, which was in disfavor both with 
Amon and with Manasseh. 

The Reign of Josiah. Josiah, a boy eight years 
old, came to the throne about 639 B. C. Fifty verses 

125 



126 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

in 2 Kings 22, 23 are devoted to his reign, but little 
is said concerning political events. He seems to have 
remained loyal to his Assyrian lord to the very end, 
even when the latter' s prestige had commenced to 
vanish; and this loyalty cost him his life. When it 
became evident that Assyria was doomed, her old- 
time rival, Egypt, was anxious to claim a part of her 
territory before anyone else could do so. The energetic 
Necoh "went up against the king of Assyria to the river 
Euphrates." Prompted by a sense of duty, and trust- 
ing in Jehovah, for whose worship he had done so 
much, "king Josiah went against him," hoping to check 
his advance. In the old battlefield of Palestine, the 
Plain of Esdraelon, near the old town of Megiddo, they 
met and, in the simple words of the author of Kings, 
"Pharaoh-necoh slew him at Megiddo, when he had 
seen him." 

The Supremacy of Egypt. Jehoahaz was raised to 
the throne in Josiah's place, but his reign was of short 
duration. After three months Necoh ordered him 
brought to Riblah, on the Orontes, where the Egyptian 
king had established his court; there he was put in 
chains and sent to Egypt. An older son of Josiah, 
Eliakim, whose name was changed to Jehoiakim, was 
made king, and an exorbitant tribute was imposed 
upon the land. Thus Judah passed from the con- 
trol of Assyria to that of Egypt. With Jehoiakim 
the half-heathenish party returned to power, which 
inaugurated a series of religious and political errors 
and crimes that resulted, in less than a quarter of a 
century, in the complete destruction of Judah and 
Jerusalem. 

The Supremacy of Chaldea. The supremacy of Egypt 



THE PROPHET JEREMIAH 127 

continued for about four years. After the capture 
of Nineveh the Chaldean empire, which had grown 
up around Babylon, laid claim to the greater part of 
Assyria's territory, including Syria and Palestine. 
In a battle fought in 604 near Carchemish, on the Eu- 
phrates, Egypt was defeated, and its rule in Palestine, 
came to an end. Nebuchadnezzar, the victor, was 
compelled by the death of his father to return home 
before he could follow up his victory, but by the 
year 600 his rule was firmly established in the 
west. 

The Reigns of Jehoiakim and Jehoiachin. Jehoiakim 
paid tribute until 597, when, probably trusting in the 
promises of Egypt, he refused to pay and revolted. 
The other states in Palestine and Syria, instead of 
joining with him, overran his territory at the instiga- 
tion of their Chaldean lord. Death removed the king 
before he saw the final results of his folly. 

He was succeeded by his eighteen-year-old son 
Jehoiachin, who was not able to avert the disaster. 
The cities outside of Jerusalem were abandoned to 
their fate. In vain the Judasans looked to Egypt for 
help. At last a division of the Chaldean army laid 
siege to the capital. Seeing that resistance was futile, 
the king and his court surrendered. Jehoiachin was 
carried to Babylon, where he was treated with much 
kindness and consideration during the latter part of 
his exile (2 Kings 25. 27-30; Jer. 52. 31-34). With 
him went about ten thousand of the best people of 
Judah. To pay the heavy tribute exacted by the 
conqueror palace and temple were looted. Only the 
pillars, the brazen sea, the vases, and the less valuable 
vessels were left behind (Jer. 27. 19, 20). 



128 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

The Reign of Zedekiah and the Fall of Jerusalem. 

Over the people that remained in the land Nebuchad- 
nezzar placed as his vassal, Mattaniah, a younger son 
of Josiah, whose name he changed to Zedekiah. The 
situation called for a ruler who could organize the 
turbulent elements left behind and hold them to a 
wise and consistent policy. Unfortunately, the new 
king lacked moral strength and courage. Although 
his intentions seem to have been good, he proved only 
a tool in the hands of his plotting advisers. 

Finally, in 588, against the persistent plea of Jere- 
miah, Judah revolted again. Ammon and Tyre lent 
their aid, and appeal was made to Egypt for support. 
Nebuchadnezzar gave the rebellion his immediate 
attention, and early in the year 587 his armies sur- 
rounded Jerusalem. Temporarily the siege had to 
be raised, to meet an Egyptian army; but when the 
latter retreated the Chaldeans returned. The siege 
lasted a year and a half. In July, 586, the besiegers 
forced an entrance into the city. Zedekiah sought to 
escape but was overtaken. He was carried before 
Nebuchadnezzar, who was at Riblah, where he was 
compelled to witness the slaughter of his children; 
then his eyes were put out, and he was carried into 
exile. Many others, especially of the better classes, 
were slain or taken into captivity. Then the city 
was pillaged and set on fire. 

Brief Rule of Gedaliah. Some of the poorer in- 
habitants were allowed to remain in the land. With 
them were left a few nobles whose loyalty could be 
trusted. Over the little state Gedaliah was appointed 
governor. Among his stanchest supporters was the 
prophet Jeremiah. Since Jerusalem was destroyed, 



THE PROPHET JEREMIAH 129 

Mizpah, about five miles to the northwest, was selected 
as the seat of government. 

For about two months (Jer. 41. 1) all went well. 
Fugitives returned, agricultural pursuits were re- 
sumed, and old hopes were beginning to revive when 
suddenly, by an act of treachery, all prospects were 
ruined. The petty kings of the surrounding nations 
looked with envy upon the newborn prosperity; 
finally the king of Ammon persuaded a certain Ishmael 
to slay Gedaliah and his attendants. Afraid that the 
death of the governor would be speedily avenged by 
Nebuchadnezzar, the surviving Jews fled to Egypt, 
against the advice of Jeremiah. Thus the kingdom 
of Judah came to an end. 

The Scythian Invasion. During the period de- 
scribed in the preceding paragraphs three important 
political events took place outside of Judah, which 
vitally affected the fortunes of the latter and were not 
without influence on the prophetic utterances of the 
age. The first in point of time was the Scythian in- 
vasion. The Scythians were a non-Semitic race of 
barbarians which swept in great hordes over Western 
Asia during the seventh century B. C. They went 
down the Mediterranean coast as far as Egypt, and at 
a later time had a prominent part in the destruction 
of Nineveh. The Book of Zephaniah and some of 
the early utterances of Jeremiah reflect the terror that 
was caused by the advance of these hordes. 

The Fall of Assyria. The second important event 
was the capture of Nineveh and the fall of the Assyrian 
empire. During the last years of the reign of King 
Ashurbanapal of Assyria (668-626) the empire was 
slowly going to pieces. After his death the end ap- 



i 3 o PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

proached more rapidly. In 625 the Chaldean Nabo- 
polassar established an independent kingdom in Baby- 
lon. With the Scythians pressing from the north 
and the new Chaldean power from the south, Assyria 
was in serious peril. Finally, about 610, Nabopolassar 
entered into an alliance with the Scythians, who ad- 
vanced against Nineveh. The struggle continued for 
two years. The attacking forces met determined 
resistance. At last a breach was made in the north- 
eastern corner of the wall, and the city was taken, 
plundered, and burned. With this catastrophe the 
Assyrian world power came to an end. Nahum is the 
prophet of Nineveh's doom. 

The Rise of the Chaldean Empire. Closely con- 
nected with the decline and fall of Assyria is the rise 
of the Chaldean or Neo-Babylonian power. The city 
of Babylon had been for many centuries the seat of a 
mighty empire. In time Assyria had overshadowed 
and finally annexed it. On the shores of the Persian 
Gulf there lived a people called the Chaldeans, who 
had caused much trouble to both Babylonia and As- 
syria. During the latter part of the seventh century 
one of their number, Nabopolassar, succeeded in mak- 
ing himself master of Babylon, and finally declared his 
independence of Assyria. When Nineveh fell this 
Chaldean power divided the Assyrian territory with 
the Scythians, and then entered upon new conquests. 
It reached the height of its power and splendor under 
Nebuchadnezzar, who reigned from 604 to 562. During 
his reign Jerusalem fell, and the Jews were carried 
into exile. The early campaigns of the Chaldean 
armies are reflected in the prophecies of Habakkuk, 
while Jeremiah, who was a witness of all the events 



THE PROPHET JEREMIAH 131 

mentioned, watched the final destruction of the holy 
city. 

MORAL AND RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS 

The Religious Reaction under Manasseh. The 

moral and religious conditions in Judah during the 
eighth century are described on p. 75ft*. Hezekiah at- 
tempted reforms, but he by no means succeeded in 
removing all abuses. Under Manasseh a reaction 
swept over the land, which threatened the very ex- 
istence of Jehovah religion. The idols torn down by 
Hezekiah were carefully restored, the Asherim were 
again set up, and the enchanters and soothsayers 
exercised their old influence; even human sacrifices 
were offered (2 Kings 21. 6). The worship of other 
deities was introduced in the temple (2 Kings 21. 3, 5; 
23. 11, 12), and the popular worship became a strange 
combination of foreign and native cults. 

Religious Conditions during the Early Years of 
Josiah's Reign. Anion followed in the footsteps of 
his father, so that the religious outlook was exceedingly 
dark when, in 639, Josiah came to the throne. For- 
tunately, the latter seems to have been under prophetic 
influence from the beginning, and, assisted by the 
faithful nucleus within the nation, he undertook a 
sweeping religious reform, which reached its culmina- 
tion in the eighteenth year of his reign. When Zepha- 
niah preached and the early prophecies of Jeremiah 
were delivered this reform was still in the future ; and 
from the utterances of these two prophets, as also from 
2 Kings 22, 23, we may gather some idea of the corrupt 
state of religion before 621 B. C. The practices re- 
stored by Manasseh were continued. The Baalim were 
worshiped and the high places were flourishing; a 



i 3 2 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

half-hearted Jehovah worship, which was in reality- 
idolatry, was widespread, while great multitudes had 
turned entirely from following Jehovah. Jeremiah 
sums up his indictment against the nation in 2. 13ft'., 
and one of the two evils condemned is apostasy from 
Jehovah: "They have forsaken me, the fountain of 
living waters, and hewed them out cisterns, broken 
cisterns, that can hold no water." Idolatry had crept 
into the temple itself (7. 30). In addition to open 
apostasy the prophets beheld a provoking skepticism. 
When the cruel and godless Manasseh was allowed to 
sit undisturbed upon the throne for half a century or 
more, many began to question the interest of Jehovah 
in the affairs of the nation; they began to say in their 
hearts, "Jehovah will not do good, neither will he do 
evil" (Zeph. 1. 12; compare also Jer. 5. 12). Many 
became practical atheists, who denied the justice, or 
even the reality, of the divine government of the 
world. 

In the face of this heart-apostasy the people con- 
tinued to trust in the efficacy of the outward forms of 
religion. They offered sacrifice, and felt secure in the 
thought that the temple of Jehovah was in their midst 
(Jer. 7. 4). Conditions could not be otherwise, since the 
majority of the religious leaders had become mis- 
leaders. Zephaniah complains, "Her prophets are 
light and treacherous persons; her priests have pro- 
faned the sanctuary, they have done violence to the 
law" (3. 4). The people would listen to these false 
guides (Jer. 8. 8ff.), while paying no attention to the 
true prophets (7. 28). 

The Reforms of Josiah. The discovery of the book 
of the law in 621 produced, for a time at least, a change 



THE PROPHET JEREMIAH 133 

for the better. After Josiah had assured himself that 
the book correctly expressed the will of Jehovah, 
it was read to the people, and king and people entered 
into a solemn covenant to obey its injunctions. The de- 
tails of the reforms inaugurated are described in 2 Kings 
23 and 2 Chron. 34, 35. Certainly, this religious refor- 
mation, like all others instituted by state authority, 
affected first the externals of religion ; but the thirteen 
peaceful years which followed were improved to im- 
press the fundamental principles underlying it upon 
the hearts and consciences of the people. 

The Religious Reaction under Jehoiakim. The 
death of Josiah in 608 was a severe blow to the im- 
mediate realization of the ideals of the prophets. The 
heathenish party, which had been in the background 
for some years, hastened to point to the calamity as 
a divine judgment upon the king's iconoclastic zeal 
to change old conditions and practices; and with the 
common people, who were accustomed to associate 
prosperity with the divine favor, and calamity with 
the divine wrath, such argument would have con- 
siderable weight. Jehoahaz may have been the choice 
of the prophetic party, but when he was displaced 
by Jehoiakim, a cruel, selfish, and luxury-loving mon- 
arch (Jer. 22. iff.), the heathenish party returned to 
power. Then conditions became again as they were 
before the reform of Josiah and continued to be so 
until Jerusalem was destroyed. The people again 
went after other gods, or trusted in the externals of 
religion, while the prophets of Jehovah were persecuted 
and even slain (Jer. 26. 20-23). No wonder that even 
good men began to question the reality of a divine 
Providence over Judah (Hab. 1. 2ff.). 



i 3 4 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

The Moral Conditions as Portrayed by the Seventh 
Century Prophets. Moral conditions during the 
seventh century were equally bad. The Old Testament 
contains no contemporaneous description of moral 
conditions during the reigns of Manasseh and Amon, 
but we may assume that they were practically iden- 
tical with those reflected in the prophecies coming from 
the period preceding the reform of 621. Zephaniah 
furnishes a vivid picture of conditions in his day. 
Social injustice and moral corruption were widespread : 
"Woe to her that is rebellious and polluted, to the 
oppressing city!" (3. 1.) "Her princes in the midst 
of her are roaring lions ; her judges are evening wolves ; 
they leave nothing till the morrow" (3. 3). "They 
rose early and corrupted all their doings" (3. 7). Lux- 
ury and extravagance might be seen on every hand, and 
fortunes were heaped up by unjust oppression of the 
poor: "The princes, and the king's sons, and all such 
as are clothed with foreign apparel. . . . Those that 
leap over the threshold, that fill their master's house 
with violence and deceit" (1. 8, 9). 

Nahum is silent concerning conditions in Judah; 
but Habakkuk refers to them again ; and he does so in 
a way that shows the prevalence of violence and op- 
pression. The widespread corruption in Judah is the 
cause of the prophet's perplexity. He cannot har- 
monize the apparent indifference of Jehovah in the 
presence of deep-seated corruption with his conception 
of the divine character (1. 2-4). 

Jeremiah, who was the contemporary of all three 
prophets, confirms their complaints. "Run ye to and 
fro," he says, "through the streets of Jerusalem, and 
see now, and know, and seek in the broad places thereof, 



THE PROPHET JEREMIAH 135 

if ye can find a man, if there be any that doeth justly, 
that seeketh truth. . . . And though they say, As 
Jehovah liveth; surely they swear falsely" (5. 1, 2). 
Falsehood, faithlessness, oppression, covetousness, in- 
justice, violence, murder, and other vices and crimes 
met the prophet on every hand (5. 26-28). Speaking 
of Jerusalem he declares, "She is wholly oppression in 
the midst of her. As a well casteth forth its waters, 
so she casteth forth her wickedness: violence and de- 
struction is heard in her; before me continually is 
sickness and wounds" (6. 6, 7). Similar indictments 
are brought in 6. 13, where Jeremiah complains that 
even prophets and priests deal falsely, 9. 261.5 34. 8ff.; 
also, by implication, in 7. 5ft". Indeed, the whole book 
reflects the compassion of Jeremiah for a people that 
has become utterly corrupt and is therefore doomed 
to destruction. 

THE PROPHET JEREMIAH 

The Personal Life of Jeremiah. The latter part 
of the seventh century produced four prophets in Judah : 
Jeremiah, Zephaniah, Nahum, and Habakkuk. The 
greatest of these, and the one enjoying the longest 
period of activity, was Jeremiah. He was of priestly 
descent, the son of Hilkiah, of the priests in Anathoth 
(compare 1 Kings 2. 26), a town about three miles 
northeast of Jerusalem. It is not improbable that he 
continued to live in Anathoth even after he became 
a prophet (11. 21* 12. 6; 32. 7), though his prophetic 
ministry was exercised chiefly in Jerusalem. The 
prophetic call came to him in the thirteenth year of 
Josiah, that is, in 626, and he continued to prophesy 
until after the fall of Jerusalem in 586. During the 
Chaldean crisis he persistently opposed the revolt 



136 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

against Nebuchadnezzar. In the face of persecution 
and wrongful imprisonment he insisted that submission 
to the king of Babylon was the only hope of safety. 
For this he was regarded a traitor to his country, 
and on more than one occasion he barely escaped with 
his life. In recognition of his loyalty he was afterward 
rewarded by the Chaldeans with being permitted to 
choose between going with the exiles to Babylonia and 
remaining with his kinsmen in Judah. He chose the 
latter, perhaps because he hoped that under a sym- 
pathetic governor he might yet succeed in winning a 
remnant to his higher ideals of religion and life. After 
the assassination of Gedaliah he opposed flight to 
Egypt, but in vain; and the fugitives compelled him 
to accompany them. He continued his ministries 
there until, according to tradition, he met a martyr's 
death at the hands of his countrymen. "There," says 
Montefiore, "amid mournful surroundings and obsti- 
nate idolatry, his teaching spurned and misunderstood, 
his country waste and desolate, the curtain falls upon 
the great prophet's life in darkness and desolation." 

The Call of Jeremiah. Jeremiah hesitated to yield 
to the divine call, pleading as an excuse his extreme 
youthfulness (i. 6); but Jehovah persisted, and finally 
the young man obeyed (i. 7-10). The task set before 
him was not an easy one, for his ministry was to 
include the nations; nor was it very inspiring, for 
denunciation, judgment, and destruction were to pre- 
dominate in his message. Four verbs are used to call 
attention to the dark side of his ministry, only two to 
the bright side. No wonder the prophet hesitated. 

The Peculiar Temperament of Jeremiah. However, 
it was not only the difficulty of the task, but also a 



THE PROPHET JEREMIAH 137 

natural timidity, that caused Jeremiah to shrink from 
the prophetic office. His was also a highly emotional 
temperament; he was buoyed up by success, de- 
pressed by failure, always conscious of the heavy 
burden Jehovah had imposed upon him. Frequently 
he was almost overcome by despair, and in such mo- 
ments he bitterly complained of his fate, and wished 
that he might be released from his office: "Oh that I 
had in the wilderness a lodging place of wayfaring 
men ; that I might leave my people, and go from them !" 
(9. 2; compare also 20. 7-9.) Sometimes he gives way 
to despair to the extent of cursing the day on which 
he was born (20. 14-18; 15. 10), and challenging the 
justice of the divine government (12. iff.). Even more 
startling are the invocations of vengeance upon his 
persecutors (18. 19-23; compare 11. i8ff. ; 15. 15ft. ; 
17. 18; 20. 11, 12). 

The Hardships Endured by Jeremiah and their 
Effects upon Him. Expressions like these show that 
even the noblest Old Testament saints fell short of the 
ideals held up by Jesus. Temporarily Jeremiah's 
better self seems to have succumbed to feelings of per- 
sonal revenge. And this cannot appear so very strange 
when we consider the awful hardships he was called 
upon to endure. His ministry was a continuous mar- 
tyrdom. He stood almost alone; we know of only one 
faithful adherent, namely,, Baruch; he was to form 
no domestic ties (16. 1); his life was in constant dan- 
ger; prophets and priests opposed him (20. iff.; 23. 
9ff. ; 28.1; 29.1); his neighbors at Anathoth and even 
his relatives were against him (11. 21; 12. 6; 20. 10); 
he was thrown into prison and barely escaped with his 
life (37. i4ff. ; 38. iff.). Surely the provocation to 



138 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

wrath and vengeance was great. And yet it would 
not be fair to ascribe the expressions referred to en- 
tirely to a feeling of personal vindictiveness. Jeremiah 
was the prophet of Jehovah; those who attacked him 
by that very act attacked his God ; and his curses are 
as much curses upon the enemies of Jehovah as they are 
curses upon the prophet's persecutors, called forth by 
an intense loyalty to his God and the desire to see the 
divine righteousness triumph. 

The Faith and Courage of Jeremiah. Jeremiah's 
cries of despair must not cause us to overlook the 
brighter and nobler aspects of his character. A man 
who, in the face of all the harrowing experiences 
recorded in the book, remained at his post and con- 
tinued to proclaim with no un certain sound the will of 
Jehovah, must be a man ot subiime faith and courage. 
The prophet's courageous conduct in the presence of all 
kinds of dangers becomes only more remarkable in 
the light of the natural and temperamental timidity, 
evidences of which may be seen in many periods of his 
life. "Is not the victory of a constitutionally timid 
and shrinking character a nobler moral triumph than 
that of a man who never knew fear — who marches 
to the conflict with others with a light heart, simply 
because it is his nature to do so — because he has had no 
experience of a previous conflict with self?" Jeremiah 
is a shining example of those believers whose weak- 
ness, by the grace of God, has been made strong. 

The Tenderness and Compassion of Jeremiah. The 
tenderness and compassion with which Jeremiah 
watches the approach of the nation's doom remind 
one of Hosea: "My anguish, my anguish! I am pained 
at my very heart; my heart is disquieted in me; I 



THE PROPHET JEREMIAH 139 

cannot hold my peace; because thou hast heard, O 
my soul, the sound of the trumpet, the alarm of war" 
(4. 19; 8. 18, 21, 22; 9. 1). This tenderness of heart 
made him, as it did Hosea, in a peculiar manner the 
messenger of Jehovah's outraged love. "We may 
recognize in Jeremiah's character," says Kirkpatrick, 
"a special fitness for his mission. That tender, shrink- 
ing, sympathetic heart could more fully feel, and more 
adequately express, the ineffable divine sorrow over 
the guilty people, the eternal love, which was never 
stronger than at the moment when it seemed to have 
been metamorphosed into bitter wrath and implacable 
vengeance." 

Jeremiah's Methods of Work. The Book of Jere- 
miah enables us to get a fairly good idea of the prophet's 
methods of work. He selected the most frequented 
places and the most public occasions for the delivery 
of his discourses: the gate of the temple on a festival 
day, when people from all parts of Judah had come 
to worship (7. 2) ; the gates of the city, through which 
king and people must pass (17. 19); the court of the 
temple (19. 14; 26. 2; 35. 10); the royal palace (22. 1); 
the common dwelling place of the Rechabites (35. 2). 
But he was not content with these public discourses; 
he sought to impress his message more deeply by the 
performance of symbolical acts; for example, the hid- 
ing of the girdle by the Euphrates (13. iff.), the break- 
ing of the earthen vessel (19. iff.). The purchase of a 
field at Anathoth (32. 6ff.) and the test of the Recha- 
bites (35. iff.) were also intended to enforce his teach- 
ing. The activity of the potter (18. iff.) furnished him 
with a message to his people. Thus in season and out 
of season, by common or uncommon methods, Jere- 



140 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

miah sought to impress upon his countrymen the 
truth of Jehovah as he understood it. 

THE MESSAGE OF JEREMIAH 

Composition of the Book of Jeremiah. The man- 
ner in which at least the greater portion of the Book of 
Jeremiah was written down is set forth in chapter 36. 
In the fourth year of Jehoiakim, that is, about 604, 
Jeremiah dictated the prophecies which he had de- 
livered previously to his scribe Baruch, who inscribed 
them in a roll. In the following year, in the ninth 
month, he read this roll, at the command of Jere- 
miah, in the house of Jehovah before the people. 
The report of it finally reached the ears of the king, 
who ordered it read in his own presence. After the 
reading of a few pages the king seized the roll, cut it 
up, and cast it into the fire. Whereupon Baruch, at 
the dictation of the prophet, rewrote the roll, adding 
some utterances not included in the first collection. 
Probably neither the first nor the second roll contained 
more than the substance of Jeremiah's discourses. 
The utterances delivered subsequently to the fifth year 
of Jehoiakim were added at a later time, perhaps also 
by Baruch. The exact connection of this early col- 
lection with the present Book of Jeremiah is a matter 
of dispute. 

Arrangement of the Book of Jeremiah. The book, 
which contains besides the messages of the prophet 
much biographical and other historical material, is 
arranged by Delitzsch in "nine groups or books of 
which each three, in a certain sense, form a trilogy": 
1. The book of the time of Josiah, or, of the call- 
ing and first preaching of the prophet, chapters 1-6. 



THE PROPHET JEREMIAH 141 

2. The book of the time of Jehoiakim, or, the preaching 
at the gate of the temple, in the cities of Judah, and 
in the streets of Jerusalem, especially concerning the 
idolatry of the people, chapters 7-12. 3. The book of 
the irrevocable curse, belonging to the time of Jehoia- 
2hin, chapters 13-20. 4. The book against the shep- 
herds of the people, without chronological arrange- 
ment, chapters 21-25. 5. The book of the conflict of 
Jeremiah with the false prophets, belonging partly to 
the reign of Jehoiakim, and partly to the first years of 
Zedekiah, chapters 26-29. 6. The book of the restora- 
tion of Israel, without chronological arrangement, 
chapters 30-33. 7. The book of the accounts of the 
unbelief and skepticism of the kings and the people 
of Israel, accounts belonging to the time of Jehoiakim, 
and encompassed by incidents of the time of Zedekiah, 
chapters 34-38. 8. The book of the destinies of the 
people after the destruction of Jerusalem, chapters 
39-45. 9. The book of the prophecies concerning the 
nations, a decade of oracles, beginning with Egypt and 
ending with Babylon, belonging partly to the time of 
Jehoiakim, and partly to the time of Zedekiah, chap- 
ters 46-51. 

The Call of Jeremiah and the First Visions of Doom, 
Chapter 1. Chapter 1 may be called the introduction 
to the whole book. The title (1-3) is followed by an 
account of the call of Jeremiah to be a prophet unto 
the nations, "to pluck up and to break down and to 
destroy and to overthrow, to build and to plant" 
(4-10). In two visions — the almond tree (11, 12) and 
the boiling caldron (13-16) — he sees prefigured the 
approaching doom. His task will not be an easy 
one, but Jehovah will give him the victory (17-19). 



i 4 2 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

IsraePs Former Love and Present Apostasy, Chap- 
ter 2, The general subject of chapters 2-6, probably 
a summary of Jeremiah's teaching during the early 
years of his ministry, is the judgment upon Judah 
for its rebellion against Jehovah. Chapter 2 con- 
trasts the people's former love with their present 
apostasy. In the beginning Israel was pure and holy 
(1-3), but soon it forsook Jehovah, "the fountain of 
living waters, and hewed out cisterns, broken cisterns, 
that can hold no water" (4-13). As a result severe 
judgments have fallen upon the people (14-17), but 
without bringing them to their senses. They still trust 
in Egypt and Assyria and in gods that . cannot help 
(18-28), while they refuse to heed the divine efforts 
to bring them to repentance. Self -complacently they 
assert their innocence, therefore an awful judgment 
will fall upon them (29-37). 

Judah's Ultimate Return to Jehovah, 3. 1 — 4. 4. 
Judah has been like a faithless spouse, and her ex- 
pressions of repentance have been insincere (3. 1-5). 
The continuation of this section seems to be in verses 
i9ff. In spite of the past and present faithlessness the 
backslider will repent and return, and thus become a 
source of blessing to the nations of the earth (3. 19 — 

4.4). 

Chapter 3. 6-18 is an oracle by itself. Judah has 
seen the fate which overtook Israel on account of her 
sins, but has not profited by the observation (6-10); 
therefore Israel is less guilty (11) and will enjoy God's 
pardon first (12); only later will mercy be shown to 
Judah (13-18). 

The Imminent Doom of Judah and Jerusalem, 
4. 5 — 6. 30. Chapters 4. 5 — 6. 30 form a series of warn- 



THE PROPHET JEREMIAH 143 

ings. A foe approaching from the north is about to 
administer punishment to Judah. Jeremiah's patriotic 
soul is deeply stirred; he urges the people to take 
refuge in the fortresses, while he bewails at the same 
time the siege of the holy city (5-18). The whole land 
is made desolate (19-29), and there is no one to de- 
liver (30, 31). 

In chapters 5 and 6 the scene changes to Jerusalem. 
Jehovah would be glad to save the city, but he cannot, 
for all, high and low alike, are corrupt (5. 1-9). The 
destroyer is to have full sway; only he will not be per- 
mitted to make a complete end of Judah and Jerusa- 
lem (10-19). The people are spiritually blind and 
rebellious at heart, therefore Jehovah must punish 
(20-29). The religious leaders are largely responsible 
for the present corruption (30, 31). Chapter 6 de- 
scribes the judgment as still nearer: Jerusalem is in 
danger, and its inhabitants must flee (1-5) ; the moral 
corruption and obstinacy make destruction inevitable 
(6-21). The chapter closes with a new announcement 
of judgment (22-26) and a description of the moral 
degeneracy responsible for it (27-30). 

Condemnation of the Hypocrisy of Judah, Chap- 
ters 7-10. In chapters 7-10 judgment is pronounced 
upon the hypocrisy of Judah. Standing at the gate 
of the temple (7. 1, 2), Jeremiah warns the people 
against putting their trust in the temple ; the only way 
of escape is repentance and the practice of righteous- 
ness (3-7). Unless they repent Zion will be destroyed 
like Shiloh of old, and Judah will go the way of Israel 
(8-20). In the rest of chapter 7 and in chapter 8 the 
appeal is made anew. Jehovah has made known to 
them his requirements through the prophets (21-26), 



144 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

but they have refused to listen (27, 28), therefore the 
land shall become a waste (29-34). Even the bodies 
of the dead will be dishonored (8. 1-3). The people 
rush headlong to destruction, showing less sense than 
the birds of heaven (4-7); they boast in their own 
wisdom but they are foolish, and soon all manner of 
calamities shall befall them (8-17). Gladly would the 
prophet see the salvation of his people, and his heart 
comes nigh breaking as he comes to realize that there 
is no physician (8. 18—9. 1). Since he cannot help he 
wishes that he might leave his people, for they are 
hopelessly corrupt, and therefore doomed (9. 2-22; 10. 
17-22). In agony of spirit he once more intercedes 
for his people (10. 23-25). Chapter 10. 17 is the 
natural continuation of 9. 22. Between the two verses 
are three oracles independent of one another and of 
their context. The first (9. 23, 24) points out that 
Jehovah is the only true object of confidence; the 
second (9. 25, 26) announces judgment upon the un- 
circumcised in heart and flesh; the third (10. 1-16) 
warns the house of Israel against putting its trust in 
idols ; Jehovah alone has the power to help. 

Disregard of Jehovah's Will the Cause of Judah's 
Overthrow, Chapters 11, 12. A new section begins 
with 11. 1. Jeremiah is commissioned to exhort the 
inhabitants of Judah and Jerusalem to "hear the words 
of this covenant' ' — probably the law promulgated by 
King Josiah in 621 — "and do them" (1-8). When at a 
later time they return to their iniquity he reaffirms 
the certainty of the divine judgment (9-13). He is 
warned not to intercede for his people (14), for their 
destruction is decreed (15-17). In verses i8ff. Jere- 
miah relates how he discovered a plot of his townsmen 



THE PROPHET JEREMIAH 145 

at Anathoth against his life and how he announced 
judgment upon the conspirators (18-23). When the 
judgment is delayed he complains to Jehovah (12. 1-4), 
but is informed that severer tests of his faith are yet 
to come (5, 6). 

In 12. 7-13, belonging probably to a later period in 
Jeremiah's life, follows a poem bewailing the desola- 
tion of the land, but a hope of restoration is held out to 
Judah and her neighbors, provided they will repent 
and turn to Jehovah (14-17). 

The Corruption of the People and the Approaching 
Judgment, Chapter 13. Chapter 13 deals with the 
corruption of the people and the approaching judgment. 
The symbolical act of hiding the girdle was intended 
to illustrate the hopeless condition of the people (1-11) ; 
therefore they must suffer punishment (12-14). The 
prophet once more exhorts the people to repentance 
(15-17); but convinced that his words will not be 
heeded he immediately proceeds to announce the fall 
of the throne and the horrors of exile (18-27). 

Intercession in Vain ; Jeremiah Comforted by Jeho- 
vah, Chapters 14, 15. Chapters 14-17 may be grouped 
together, though the connection between the separate 
utterances is rather loose. A drought is distressing 
Judah (14. 1-6), in which Jeremiah sees an expression 
of the divine wrath (7). He prays for mercy (7-9), 
but is informed that the sins of the people make inter- 
cession in vain (10-12). His plea that the people have 
been led astray by the prophets (13) does not alter the 
attitude of Jehovah, who replies that prophets and 
people will perish (14-18). When the prophet renews 
his prayer (19-22) he is told that not even the prayers 
of Moses or Samuel could avert the doom (15. 1-9). 



i 4 6 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

Whereupon, in a bold and striking poem, he complains 
of his fate, but is assured that Jehovah will stand by 
him and give him the victory in the end (10-21). 

Jehovah the Only Hope of Israel, Chapters 16, 17. 
Jeremiah is forbidden to marry and raise a family 
(16. 1, 2), for nothing but disaster and death is in 
store for the nation (16. 3 — 17. 4). Jehovah is the only 
hope of Israel (5-13). The prophet prays that Jehovah 
will deliver him from his enemies and visit judgment 
upon his persecutors (14-18). Chapter 17. 19-27 is a 
plea for strict Sabbath observance. 

Discourses Suggested by the Sight of the Potter's 
Wheel and the Broken Jar, Chapters 18, 19. Chapters 
18, 19 contain discourses suggested by the sight of the 
potter's wheel and the broken jar. Prophecy is con- 
ditional, its fulfillment depending upon the people's 
attitude toward the prophetic message (18. 1-10); 
hence the repentance of the hearers may avert the 
threatened disaster (11); on the other hand, their 
stubbornness will make doom inevitable (12-17). The 
people resent Jeremiah's teaching and plan to do him 
harm (18), and the prophet prays that Jehovah will 
frustrate their schemes and execute vengeance upon 
them (19-23). By the symbolical act of breaking an 
earthen vessel in the valley of the son of Hinnom the 
prophet illustrates the completeness of the divine 
judgment (19. 1-13). 

Jeremiah's Imprisonment and Complaint, Chapter 20. 
The repetition of the same message in the temple (19. 
14, 15) leads to the prophet's imprisonment (20. 1, 2). 
On his release he pronounces a sentence of exile upon 
Pashur, who imprisoned him, and upon the whole 
people (3-6). The rest of the chapter contains an out- 



THE PROPHET JEREMIAH 147 

burst of deepest feelings, in which Jeremiah bewails his 
trials, expresses the conviction that his persecutors will 
get their deserts, and curses the day of his birth (7-18). 

The Inevitable Destruction of Jerusalem, 21. 1-10. 
Chapter 21. 1-10 records the inquiry of King Zedekiah 
concerning the outcome of the siege of Jerusalem and 
Jeremiah's reply: It shall be given into the hands of 
the enemy and burned with fire. 

Judgments upon Contemporary Rulers, 21. 11—23. 8. 
In chapters 21. 11 — 23. 8 are recorded judgments upon 
several kings, who were contemporaries of Jeremiah. 
The first utterance (21. 11-14) is intended for the 
"house of David" in general, as an exhortation to 
practice justice. Chapter 22. 1-9 is addressed to some 
particular ruler, not named. It also is a plea for the 
execution of righteousness and justice, and a warning 
against injustice. The prophet then bewails the fate 
of Shallum (Jehoahaz), who was carried to Egypt 
after a brief reign (10-12); he contrasts Jehoiakim's 
oppressive methods with the beneficent rule of Josiah 
and pronounces a terrible judgment upon him (13-19); 
in a similar manner he denounces Jehoiachin and 
threatens his exile (20-30). The condemnation of the 
faithless shepherds or rulers is summarized in 23. 1, 2, 
which is followed by a promise of ultimate restoration 
and a picture of the rule of the ideal king, which will 
form a marked contrast to that of the rulers with 
whom Jeremiah was familiar (3-8). 

Condemnation of False Prophets, 23. 9-40. Chapter 
2 3- 9-4o is a condemnation of the false prophets, be- 
cause of their immoralities (9-15), their unwarranted 
optimism (16-22), and their deception of the people 
(23-40). 



148 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

Vision of the Two Baskets of Figs and its Signifi- 
cance, Chapter 24. Chapter 24, which belongs to the 
time after the first deportation, contains the vision of 
the two baskets of figs (1-3). By the use of the figure 
of the good and bad figs Jeremiah teaches that the 
Jews who were carried into exile with Jehoiachin are 
much better than those who are still in the land, and 
their ultimate destiny will be far happier (4-10). 

The Chaldean Supremacy to Continue for Seventy 
Years, Chapter 25. Chapter 25 belongs to the fourth 
year of Jehoiakim, the year in which Nebuchadnezzar 
defeated the Egyptians at Carchemish. Jeremiah 
declares that Judah and the neighboring nations will 
be subdued by the king of Babylon and serve him 
for seventy years (1-11); at the end of that period 
his kingdom will come to an end (12-14). Under the 
figure of the drinking of the wine of wrath he announces 
that all the nations of the then known world will be 
included in the doom (15-38). 

Jeremiah's Preaching, Imprisonment, and Deliver- 
ance ; Death of Uriah, Chapter 26. In the beginning 
of Jehoiakim's reign Jeremiah warns the people that, 
unless they repent, the temple and the holy city will be 
destroyed (26. 1-7). Whereupon he was seized by the 
professional prophets and priests and the people (8, 9), 
who denounced him before the princes as deserving 
death (10, 11). After a brief defense by the prophet 
(12-15) the princes and elders declared that speaking 
in the name of Jehovah is not a crime (16-19), an d 
Jeremiah escaped death (24). Uriah, a prophet of 
Jehovah like Jeremiah, was not so fortunate (20-23). 

Conflicts with False Prophets, Chapters 27, 28. 
Chapters 27-29 describe the calm attitude of Jeremiah 



THE PROPHET JEREMIAH 149 

during the early years of Zedekiah's reign. He frus- 
trates an attempt made by the surrounding nations to 
involve Judah in a revolt against Nebuchadnezzar, and 
insists that Jehovah has decreed that all the nations of 
the earth shall become subject to the king of Babylon 
(27. 1-15). Prophets who announce the speedy down- 
fall of Babylon are liars, for its conquests will continue 
(16-22). The chief representative of the lying proph- 
ets seems to have been Hananiah, who promised the 
restoration of the first exiles within two years (28. 1-4). 
Jeremiah opposes him, and declares that he will die 
within a year, because he has spoken rebellion against 
Jehovah (5-16), which threat is fulfilled (17). 

Jeremiah's Letter to the Exiles, Chapter 29. The 
promises held out by the false prophets became 
known among the first exiles in Babylonia and caused 
much unrest. To calm them Jeremiah wrote a letter 
(29. 1-3), in which he urged them to settle down con- 
tentedly, for there would be no restoration until the 
seventy years had been accompl ished (4-2 3 ) . The letter 
aroused the resentment of the false prophets among the 
exiles, and one of them, Shemaiah, sent word to Jeru- 
salem, urging Jeremiah's arrest (24-29), but the latter 
warns the exiles against putting any confidence in 
Shemaiah's promises (30-32). 

Restoration from Exile and the Establishment 
of the New Covenant, Chapters 30, 31. Chapters 
30-33 contain a collection of prophecies dealing with 
Israel's restoration (30. 1-3). Though the present 
crisis is severe (4-7), Jehovah will save a remnant and 
restore it to honor and glory (8-1 1). Judah's hurt 
may seem incurable, nevertheless Jehovah will heal 
even the most serious wounds and restore perfect 



iSo PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

health (12-17). He will bring back the captives, who 
will be again his people, and he will be their God 
(18-24). Ephraim (31. 1-9) as well as Judah (10-14) 
will be restored, for Jehovah loves his people with an 
everlasting love. Rachel, now weeping over her chil- 
dren, may wipe her tears, for Ephraim will surely 
repent and turn to Jehovah (15-19), and in the end 
Judah and Ephraim will return together (20-30). 
Between the restored nation and Jehovah a new cove- 
nant will be established, "a covenant which is to con- 
sist not in an external system of laws, but in a law 
written in the heart, a principle operating from within, 
rilling all men with the knowledge of Jehovah, and 
prompting them to immediate and spontaneous obe- 
dience" (31-34). The fulfillment of these promises is 
as certain as the ordinances of nature (35-37). In the 
new age the city of Jehovah will expand in every 
direction (38-40). 

Certainty of the Restoration ; the Blessings Awaiting 
the Purified Remnant, Chapters 32, 33. During a 
period of imprisonment (32. 1-5) Jeremiah purchased 
a field in Anathoth as an expression of his conviction 
of an ultimate restoration (6-15). When his faith 
began to waver (16-25) Jehovah explained to him 
the course of events in the near future: The people's 
disobedience will make an exile inevitable (26-35), but 
the restoration is equally certain (36-44). In chapter 
33 the prophet depicts once more the purification and 
restoration of the nation (1-13). This accomplished, 
the ideal ruler will appear (14-18). The covenant will 
abide forever (19-26). 

The Doom of Jerusalem Due to the People's Faith- 
lessness, Chapters 34, 35. Chapter 34 is independent 



THE PROPHET JEREMIAH 151 

of the preceding section. Zedekiah is told that the 
city will be taken and that he will be carried into^ exile, 
but his life will be spared (1-7). The fate is well de- 
served, because the people have dealt treacherously 
with the Hebrew slaves, whom they emancipated under 
the stress of the siege, but reenslaved when the siege 
was temporarily raised (8-22). Chapter 35 records 
the fidelity of the Rechabites to their vows (i-n), 
which the prophet contrasts with the people's lack of 
fidelity to Jehovah (12-19). 

Origin of the Book of Jeremiah,, Chapter 36. The 
long section which follows (chapters 36-45) is almost 
entirely of an historical nature and has been called 
"A History of Jeremiah." We are told how Jere- 
miah dictated his prophecies to Baruch, who inscribed 
them in a roll (36. 1-5). At the prophet's command he 
read this roll in the temple (6-10) and later before the 
princes (11-19). When the report of it reached the 
king's ears he ordered it read in his presence (20-22). 
But after a few leaves had been read he seized it and 
threw it into the fire (23-26). At the divine command 
the roll was rewritten with some additions (27-32). 

Jeremiah and Zedekiah,"37. 1—38. 28. Chapter 37 
takes us again to the reign of Zedekiah (1, 2). The 
approach of the Pharaoh's army caused the temporary 
raise of the siege of Jerusalem (3-5), nevertheless 
Jeremiah warns the king against trusting in the king 
of Egypt (6-10). Later the prophet is accused of de- 
sertion and imprisoned (11-16). During a secret in- 
terview with Zedekiah he reaffirms previous threats; 
he also prays for a change in prison quarters, which is 
granted (17-21). For announcing the destruction of 
the city Jeremiah is thrown into a dungeon (38. 1-6), 



152 



PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 



from which he is released at the king's command (7-13). 
In another secret interview Zedekiah is urged to sur- 
render to the Chaldeans, because only so can he save 
his life (14-23). Jeremiah remains in the court of the 
guard until the capture of Jerusalem (2 4-2 8a). 

Jeremiah and Gedaliah, 38. 28 — 41. 18. When Jeru- 
salem was taken (38. 28b — 39. 10) Jeremiah was spared 
(11-18). Verses 15-18 contain a promise that Ebed- 
melech will be saved. The prophet is given the choice 
between remaining with the new governor, Gedaliah, 
and going with the exiles ; and he prefers the former 
(40. 1-6). An era of prosperity dawns under Geda- 
liah (7-12), but after a few months he is murdered by 
Ishmael (40. 13 — 41. 3), who then takes captive the 
inhabitants of Mizpah and carries them to Ammon 
(4-10), where they are rescued by Johanan (11-18). 

Jeremiah Taken to Egypt against his Will, Chap- 
ters 42-44. The surviving Jews appeal to Jeremiah for 
advice (42. 1-6), who assures them of the divine pro- 
tection, provided they remain in the land (7-12), but 
if they flee to Egypt disaster will overtake them (13- 
22). In spite of this warning they go to Egypt and 
compel Jeremiah to accompany them (43. 1-7). 
While in Egypt Jeremiah announces the conquest of 
that land by Nebuchadnezzar (8-10). In Egypt the 
Jews relapse into idolatry, for which the prophet re- 
bukes them (44. 1-14). The people reply that when 
they worshiped Jehovah it was ill with them; on the 
other hand, when they practiced idolatry they had 
plenty, therefore they will not hearken to him (15-19). 
Whereupon Jeremiah renews his warnings and in- 
forms the people that few of them will return to Judah 
(20-30). 



THE PROPHET JEREMIAH 153 

Encouragement of Baruch, Chapter 45. Chapter 
45 is a supplement to 36. 1-8. It is a message to Baruch, 
whose courage was failing. He is told that it is not 
a time to expect great things for himself; he must be 
content if his life is spared. 

Prophecies Concerning Foreign Nations, Chapters 
46-51. Chapters 46-51 contain prophecies against 
foreign nations (46. 1). The first is against Egypt (2). 
Following an ode over the defeat of Pharaoh-neco 
at Carchemish (3-12), the prophet predicts the vic- 
torious invasion of Egypt by Nebuchadnezzar (13-26). 
This is followed by words of comfort addressed to 
Israel (27, 28; almost identical with 30. 10, 11). 
Philistia is warned that an enemy will come from the 
north, who will wholly waste the land. The devasta- 
tion will affect also Tyre and Sidon (chap. 47). 

The long prophecy in chapter 48 is directed against 
Moab, whose utter destruction is announced. A 
similar fate is awaiting Ammon (49. 1-6). Edom also 
is doomed (7-22). Damascus, seized with trembling, 
will be taken and her warriors slain (23-27). Kedar 
and Hazor will be scattered (28-33), and a similar fate 
will befall Elam (34-39). 

The climax is the oracle against Babylon (50. 1 — 
51. 58). A nation is approaching from the north, to 
make an end of her power, that the exiles may be 
delivered. Again and again the prophet bids the 
foe to begin the fray, while he exhorts the exiles to 
escape from the doomed city, in whose downfall he 
rejoices. 

This prophecy is followed by a brief historical sec- 
tion (51. 59-64), which states that Jeremiah sent to 
Babylon a roll containing a curse upon the city, with 



154 



PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 



the command that it be read there and then sunk in the 
Euphrates. 

Closing Days of Jerusalem; Kind Treatment of 
Jehoiachin, Chapter 52. Chapter 52 contains an ac- 
count of the reign of Zedekiah (1-3), his rebellion 
and the subsequent capture of the city (4-1 1), the 
burning of the holy city and the carrying away of the 
exiles and of the temple treasures (12-30). It closes 
with an account of the kindly treatment accorded to 
Jehoiachin by Evil-merodach (31-34). 

THE TEACHING OF JEREMIAH 

Agreement of Jeremiah with His Predecessors. 

Jeremiah was the prophet of the fall of Jerusalem. 
His message is in the main one of doom; only rarely 
does there appear a ray of light. In his conception of 
the character of Jehovah he is in perfect accord with 
his predecessors in the prophetic office. Jehovah is 
the one God, righteous and just, pure and holy, merciful 
and gracious, slow to anger, and yet sure to visit upon 
evil-doers their sins. However, it is not in an abstract 
manner that Jeremiah discusses the divine character, 
but rather in its bearing upon Jehovah's relation to 
Judah, which is the subject of all his preaching. 

Israel in a Peculiar Sense the People of Jehovah. 
Like Hosea, Jeremiah starts out with the conviction 
that his countrymen are in a peculiar sense the people 
of Jehovah. They had become such by divine choice. 
It was Jehovah who brought them out of Egypt, led 
them through the wilderness, and established them in 
the promised land, where they might live in prosperity 
(2. 6, 7). He had also looked after their spiritual needs: 
"I have sent unto you all my servants the prophets, 



THE PROPHET JEREMIAH 155 

daily rising up early and sending them" (7. 25). Like 
Hosea, Jeremiah describes the intimate relation be- 
tween Jehovah and Israel under the two figures of 
marriage and filial relation. He calls the early affection 
of Israel the love of her espousals (2. 2), and he places 
in the mouth of Jehovah these words: "I am a father 
to Israel, and Ephraim is my firstborn" (31. 9). 

Israel's Apostasy. But Israel proved faithless. In 
the beginning "Israel was holiness unto Jehovah" 
(2. 3), but it soon forsook him (3. 1), walked after 
vanity, and became vain (2. 5; compare also verses 
7, 8, 12, 13, 21). The faithlessness showed itself in the 
practice of idolatry (3. 1); in the temple itself they 
set up their abominations (7. 30). Some who were 
not attracted by idolatry became skeptics or practical 
atheists; they doubted the righteousness or even the 
reality of the divine government of the world (5. 12). 
Religious apostasy was accompanied by moral apostasy. 
Crimes and vices of various sorts were openly prac- 
ticed; goodness was almost unknown. "As a well 
casteth forth its waters, so she casteth forth her wick- 
edness: violence and destruction is heard in her; 
before me continually is sickness and wounds" (6. 7; 
compare 5. 1, 26-28; 6. 13; 9. 2fL; etc.). 

Israel's Self-righteousness. As in the days of the 
earlier prophets, the people, in spite of their religious 
and moral apostasy, entertained a feeling of perfect 
security and self -righteousness. Many believed that 
in view of their painstaking observance of the external 
ceremonial they had a claim upon the divine favor, 
and that Jehovah was bound to stand by them. In 
this attitude of mind they found it easy to exaggerate 
Isaiah's doctrine of the inviolability of Zion and to 



156 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

put their trust in the external temple (7. 4). Nor is it 
any wonder that in this spirit they should resent the 
denunciations of Jeremiah and consider him a fanatical 
disturber of the peace (8. 8, 12; 18. 18). Their spirit- 
ual sensibilities had become dulled and their con- 
sciences had become seared. Therefore they failed to 
understand the significance of the divinely sent chas- 
tisements: "Wherefore hath Jehovah our God done 
all these things unto us?" (5. 19; 16. 10). 

Jeremiah severely condemns this self-complacency 
and blind trust in the externals of religion. The 
promise that the presence of the temple will save them 
he calls "lying words" (7. 4) ; and he declares the whole 
sacrificial system to be an abomination to Jehovah 
(6. 20). "Will ye steal, murder, and commit adultery, 
and swear falsely, and burn incense unto Baal, and 
walk after other gods that ye have not known, and 
come and stand before me in this house, which is called 
by my name, and say, We are delivered ; that ye may do 
all these abominations? Is this house, which is called by 
my name, become a den of robbers in your eyes? Be- 
hold, I, even I, have seen it, saith Jehovah" (7. 9-1 1). 

Threats of Judgment. It is the apparent hopeless- 
ness of the situation that is responsible for the many 
announcements and threats of judgment. From 1. 10, 
which contains the commission of the prophet, to the 
end of the book the somber note of judgment pre- 
dominates. In the prophecies belonging to the earlier 
period a note of hope is still discernible. Judah may 
yet repent; if so, the severest blow may be averted. 
Therefore the prophet frequently exhorts the people 
to repent: "Break up your fallow ground, and sow not 
among thorns. Circumcise yourselves to Jehovah, 



THE PROPHET JEREMIAH 157 

and take away the foreskins of your heart, ye men 
of Judah and inhabitants of Jerusalem ; lest my wrath 
go forth like fire, and burn so that none can quench 
it, because of the evil of your doings" (4. 3, 4; com- 
pare 6. 8; 7. 3; etc.). But when the years passed 
without any improvement in the people, and especially 
after the accession of Jehoiakim, Jeremiah came to 
abandon the expectation of any kind of general re- 
sponse on the part of the obdurate nation. "But they 
say, It is in vain; for we will walk after our own de- 
vices, and we will do every one after the stubbornness 
of his evil heart" (18. 12). He became convinced that 
Jehovah's patience was exhausted and that the time 
of mercy was past. He must no longer pray for mercy; 
justice must have her way. "Therefore pray not 
thou for this people, neither lift up cry nor prayer for 
them, neither make intercession to me; for I will not 
hear thee" (7. 16; 14. 12). Yea, though Moses and 
Samuel should intercede, they could not change Jeho- 
vah's purpose to cast the people out of his sight (15. 1). 
In the immediate future the prophet could see nothing 
but death and destruction: "Such as are for death 
(shall go forth) to death; and such as are for the 
sword, to the sword ; and such as are for the famine, to 
the famine; and such as are for captivity, to captivity." 
Promises of a Future Restoration. From the sins of 
the present and the judgments which he expects to fall 
in the near future Jeremiah frequently turns to the more 
remote future. He saw beyond the night of calamity and 
distress the dawn of a brighter day. The eternal pur- 
pose of divine grace must yet be realized. The nation 
may perish, but the kingdom of God must endure. 
Promises of restoration are scattered throughout the 



158 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

entire book, but they are especially numerous in 
chapters 30-33, which have been called a "Book of 
Consolation." The following are the most important 
features of the future glory which are emphasized by 
Jeremiah : 

1. The Preservation of a Remnant. Like the 
other prophets, Jeremiah believes that the divine 
judgments have a disciplinary purpose. The whole 
nation must suffer in exile, but among the exiles are 
some who have remained and will remain faithful to 
Jehovah. These faithful ones, who constitute the true 
Israel, will survive the calamity, and will be saved 
as the nucleus of the new kingdom of God (4. 27 ; 5. 10, 
18; 29. 11; 30. 11; 46. 28). 

2. The Restoration from Exile. These faithful 
servants of Jehovah, saved from destruction, will in due 
time be restored to their old home. The period of 
exile will be seventy years (25. 11). At the end of 
this period the power of Babylon will be broken (25. 
12-14); and the hour of Babylon's downfall will be 
the time of the exiles' restoration (30. 7-1 1). The 
return from exile will be so glorious that it will cast the 
wonderful deliverance from Egypt into the shade 
(16. 14, 15). North and south will share the glories 
of the restoration (3.12,21,22); for the divine father- 
heart yearns with compassion for the whole people 
(chapter 31). Since only the faithful will be brought 
back, the land of Judah and the cities thereof may 
again be called the " habitation of righteousness" 
and the "mountain of holiness" (31. 23). 

3. The New Jerusalem. The present Jerusalem is 
corrupt and, therefore, must be destroyed; but as 
out of the ashes of the old nation a new nation will 



THE PROPHET JEREMIAH 159 

emerge, so, the prophet is convinced, out of the ruins 
of the old city a new city will arise, to serve as the 
dwelling place of Jehovah and a suitable religious 
center for the returned exiles. The new Jerusalem 
will be free from the corruptions of the present city: 
"And this is the name whereby she shall be called: 
Jehovah our righteousness" (33. 16). 

4. The Ideal King. In the new city and over the 
redeemed remnant an ideal king will rule. The throne 
of David had been disgraced by a succession of worth- 
less kings, who had hurried Judah to its ruin. In the 
era of restoration all this will be changed: "And I 
will set up shepherds over them, who shall feed them; 
and they shall fear no more, nor be dismayed" (23. 4). 
The chief ruler will be a descendant of David: "I will 
raise unto David a righteous Branch, and he shall 
reign as king and deal wisely, and shall execute justice 
and righteousness in the land. In his days Judah shall 
be saved, and Israel shall dwell safely; and this is his 
name whereby he shall be called: Jehovah our right- 
eousness" (23. 5, 6). In 30. 9 the ideal ruler is called 
David, which means, that he will be a second David, 
a man after God's own heart and a true representative 
of Jehovah. He is also represented as having free 
access to God (30. 21). 

5. The New Covenant. An important element in 
the teaching of Jeremiah is the establishment of a new 
covenant, a covenant of pardon and grace. The cove- 
nant made at Mount Sinai had failed to accomplish 
its purpose. Israel had become apostate; "they 
obeyed not, nor inclined their ear, but walked every one 
in the stubbornness of their evil heart" (11. 8; 31. 32). 
This was due to a serious defect inherent in the old 



160 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

covenant. "It was powerless to secure the obedience 
it enjoined; it was burdensome as a law of positive 
precepts and ordinances; in relation to the removal 
of sin it was hopelessly ineffective." An effective 
covenant is not imposed from without: it is the out- 
growth of mutual affection, and such affection can 
exist only where there is identity of ideals and purpose. 
The shortcomings of the old covenant will be removed 
in the new. "I will put my law in their inward parts, 
and in their heart will I write it; and I will be their 
God, and they shall be my people. And they shall 
teach no more every man his neighbor, and every man 
his brother, saying, Know Jehovah; for they shall all 
know me, from the least of them unto the greatest of 
them, saith Jehovah: for I will forgive their iniquity, 
and their sin will I remember no more" (31. 33, 34). 
And again, "I will make an everlasting covenant with 
them, that I will not turn away from following them, 
to do them good; and I will put my fear in their 
hearts, that they may not depart from me" (32. 40). 
The prophet, then, looks for a new covenant of grace, 
which is the outgrowth of the divine love, and is pre- 
ceded by an act of pardon and cleansing: "I will 
cleanse them from all their iniquity, whereby they 
have sinned against me; and I will pardon all their 
iniquities, whereby they have sinned against me, and 
whereby they have transgressed against me" (33. 8). 
The new covenant will be an everlasting covenant, 
uniting Jehovah and his people forever. Such it can 
be because the immediate and experimental knowledge 
of God, which is to be enjoyed by all, will prove 
an ever-active motive for goodness and righteousness. 
6. Spirituality of Religion. Jeremiah's teaching 



THE PROPHET JEREMIAH 161 

concerning the nature and character of the new cove- 
nant gives evidence of his deeply spiritual conception 
of religion, which appears also in other connections. 
In former days the national aspect of religion was 
emphasized; and this naturally gave a large place to 
forms and institutions which might be national in 
their use and benefits. Jeremiah saw that the national 
life of Judah was rapidly nearing its close, and with 
it would disappear the holy city, the temple, and other 
institutions that were closely bound up with the re- 
ligious life of the past. Religion, to prepare it for 
this crisis, must be denationalized, it must be in- 
dividualized and spiritualized. Important as are his 
other contributions to the body of religious truth, 
bis teaching on this subject is of the greatest perma- 
nent value. Here he passes beyond his predecessors in 
the direction of the teaching of Jesus. With Jeremiah 
religion is an immediate, personal relationship between 
Jehovah and the individual soul, and heart obedience 
and devotion of the individual to his God. When all 
individuals enjoy this personal fellowship, then a 
similar relationship becomes possible between Jehovah 
and the redeemed remnant as a whole. "I will give 
them a heart to know me, that I am Jehovah: and 
they shall be my people and I will be their God ; and they 
shall return unto me with their whole heart" (24. 7). 
7. Personal Responsibility. The individualization 
of religion implies the doctrine of personal responsi- 
bility. With the sense of individuality lost, persons 
might think that they were punished for the sins of 
others, sins committed either by some of their con- 
temporaries or by their ancestors. Jeremiah knew 
that there were those who said, "The fathers have 



162 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

eaten sour grapes, and the children's teeth are set on 
edge" (31. 29). Conscious personal fellowship with 
God involves a deeper sense of individual responsi- 
bility. Men will begin to realize that every one is re- 
sponsible for his own conduct. "Every one shall die 
for his own iniquity: every man that eateth sour grapes, 
his teeth shall be set on edge" (31. 30). 

8. Salvation of the Nations. It follows naturally 
from such teaching that the salvation of the nations out- 
side of Israel does not depend upon membership in 
the nation Israel, but upon their own relation to the 
true God. When, as a result of the wonderful mani- 
festations of Jehovah, they come to recognize him as 
the true God, then they too will find their place among 
the redeemed. "Unto thee shall the nations come from 
the ends of the earth, and shall say, Our fathers have 
inherited naught but lies, even vanity and things where- 
in there is no profit" (16. 19 ; compare 3. 17 ; 4. 2 ; 33. 9). 

9. Disappearance of External Symbols. When the 
immediate presence of Jehovah is realized the. peo- 
ple may discard the emblems peculiar to the old re- 
ligion. This thought is expressed most clearly in the 
announcement that the need of the ark will no longer 
be felt: "When ye are multiplied and increased in the 
land, in those days, saith Jehovah, they shall say no 
more, The ark of the covenant of Jehovah; neither 
shall it come to mind ; neither shall they remember it ; 
neither shall they miss it; neither shall it be made 
any more" (3. 16). The ark was the symbol of the 
presence of Jehovah; but when Jehovah himself is in 
the midst of the people, and his presence is realized 
in the lives and experiences of his worshipers, no one 
will care for the symbols of his presence. 



CHAPTER VIII 
THE CONTEMPORARIES OF JEREMIAH 

I. ZEPHANIAH 
THE PERSONAL LIFE OF THE PROPHET ZEPHANIAH 

Occasion and Date of the Prophecy. The earliest 
of Jeremiah's contemporaries was Zephaniah. The 
occasion of his prophesying seems to have been the 
appearance of the Scythians, to which reference is 
made on p. 129. At the time his message was de- 
livered their advance against Egypt was still in the 
future, though imminent. The prophet considered the 
Scythians the executioners of the divine judgment 
upon his sinful countrymen and upon the surrounding 
nations, and he saw in the coming of the mysterious 
hosts the harbinger of the day of Jehovah. If this was 
the occasion, the prophet's urgent calls to repentance 
and threats of judgment may be assigned, with con- 
siderable assurance, to the years between 630 and 
625 B. C, perhaps 626, the year in which Jeremiah 
began his prophetic ministry. 

The Ancestry of Zephaniah. Practically nothing 
is known of the prophet's personal history. In 1. 1 his 
ancestry is traced back four generations. Since it is 
not customary in the Old Testament to trace a man's 
ancestry back so far, it has been inferred from this 
exception to the general rule that the last mentioned 
ancestor of Zephaniah was a man of prominence — in- 
deed, no other than King Hezekiah of Judah, the con- 
temporary of Isaiah and Micah. If the prophet was 

163 



1 64 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

of royal blood his condemnation of the royal princes 
(i. 8), with whose conduct he was evidently familiar 
(i. 8ff), becomes of great interest. In a similar man- 
ner Isaiah, who is thought to have been of royal de- 
scent, condemned the shortcomings and vices of the 
rulers and the court. That Zephaniah lived in Jeru- 
salem is made probable by his reference to the holy city 
as "this place" (i. 4), and by his intimate knowledge 
of the topography of the city (1. 10, 11). 

Length of Zephaniah's Activity. For how long he 
continued his ministry we do not know; it is not im- 
probable, however, that, as was the case with Amos, 
his public activity was short, and that, after delivering 
his message of judgment in connection with a great 
political crisis, he retired to private life, though his 
interest in religious reforms may have continued 
(2 Kings 23. 2). 

THE MESSAGE OF ZEPHANIAH 

The Book of Zephaniah falls naturally into two parts 
of unequal length. The first part (1. 2 — 3. 7) contains 
almost exclusively denunciations and threats; the 
second (3. 8-20), a promise of salvation and glorification. 

The Judgment upon Judah and Jerusalem, Chapter 
1. The prophecy opens with an announcement of a 
world judgment (1. 2, 3), which will be particularly 
severe upon Judah and Jerusalem (4), because they 
"have not sought Jehovah nor inquired after him"; 
instead they have practiced idolatrous rites of various 
kinds (4-6). The ungodly nobles will suffer most, 
because they are arrogant and practice oppression, 
violence, and deceit (8, 9). The judgment is immi- 
nent (7). When it comes, cries of agony and despair 
will be heard everywhere (10, 11). No one will escape; 



CONTEMPORARIES OF JEREMIAH 165 

even the indifferent skeptics will be aroused by the 
terrible character of the judgment (12, 13). In the 
succeeding verses the imminence and terribleness of 
the day of Jehovah is enlarged upon. It "is near and 
hasteth greatly" (14), it is a day of darkness without 
a ray of light (15), and a day of battle (16) . The calam- 
ity will throw the inhabitants into helpless confusion, 
so that they will stagger like blind men and fall an 
easy prey to the enemy (17), who will show them no 
mercy. All this will come to pass because Jehovah has 
determined to "make an end, yea, a terrible end, of 
all them that dwell in the land" (18). 

Exhortation to Repentance, 2. 1-3. The message 
of judgment is followed by an exhortation to repent- 
ance (2. 1-3). Aroused by the indifference of the 
listeners, the prophet pleads with them to give some 
evidence of repentance (1), else they will be swept 
away like chaff before the wind (2). One way of 
escape is offered to the meek, namely, to "seek 
Jehovah." If they do this they may be "hid in the 
day of Jehovah" (3). 

Judgment upon Foreign Nations, 2. 4-15. The next 
section (2. 4-15) contains threats of judgment upon 
five nations. Philistia will be destroyed so completely 
that no inhabitant will be left (4-7). On account of 
their pride and arrogance Moab and Ammon will be- 
come like Sodom and Gomorrah (8-10). The terrible 
manifestation of Jehovah's power will reveal the 
nothingness of the deities worshiped by other nations, 
and all men will render homage to the God of Israel 
(11). Ethiopia in the south will feel the divine wrath 
(12); but the severest blow will fall upon Assyria and 
its capital Nineveh (13-15). 



166 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

The Judgment and its Effects, 3. 1-13. In 3. 1 the 

prophet turns once more to Jerusalem, "the rebellious 
and unclean, the city of oppression.'' Her princes are 
thieves, her prophets "bold jugglers instead of God's 
witnesses," her priests profane that which is holy (1-4). 
Jehovah has done all he could to win the city back to 
purity, but in vain ; her inhabitants corrupted all their 
doings (5-7). Since all warnings have failed the 
judgment, which will involve Judah with the other 
nations, is inevitable (8). A remnant will escape, 
and it is exhorted to remain loyal amid the imminent 
convulsions, because the future has brighter things 
in store. The judgment will result in the conversion of 
a choice portion of the nations of the earth (9, 10). 
This company, with the redeemed and purified remnant 
of Judah, will find rest and peace in Jehovah (11-13). 
The Joy of the Redeemed Daughter of Zion, 3. 
14-20. The closing section, which is by many denied 
to Zephaniah, pictures the joy of the redeemed daugh- 
ter of Zion. In 14-17 she is urged to rejoice mightily, 
because Jehovah has redeemed her and now rules in 
the midst of her. In 18-20 Jehovah promises to the 
restored community deliverance from all foes, the re- 
moval of all reproach, the restoration of the dispersed, 
and the exaltation of the faithful among the nations 
of the earth. 

THE TEACHING OF ZEPHANIAH 

Zephaniah and the Earlier Prophets. The theology 
of Zephaniah closely resembles that of the earlier 
prophetic books. Jehovah is the God of the universe, 
a God of righteousness and holiness, who expects of his 
worshipers a life in accord with his will. Israelis his 
chosen people, but on account of its rebellion it must 



CONTEMPORARIES OF JEREMIAH 167 

suffer severe punishment. Wholesale conversion seems 
out of the question, but a remnant may be "hid in the 
day of Jehovah's anger," and this remnant will be 
exalted among the nations. In his emphasis of these 
and similar truths Zephaniah follows in the footsteps 
of his predecessors, especially in those of Isaiah. He 
adds little, but attempts with much spiritual and moral 
fervor to impress upon his contemporaries the funda- 
mental truths of the religion of Jehovah. 

The Day of Jehovah. There are, however, a few 
points in the teaching of the Book of Zephaniah which 
deserve special mention. In the first place, the em- 
phasis upon the day of Jehovah. Earlier prophets had 
spoken of it; Amos (5. 18-20) had described it in lan- 
guage similar to that employed by Zephaniah ; but the 
latter surpasses all his predecessors in the emphasis he 
places upon this terrible manifestation of Jehovah. 
His entire teaching centers around this day, and in the 
Book of Zephaniah we find the germs of the apocalyptic 
visions which became so common in later prophecies 
of an eschatological character. Concerning this day he 
says (1) that it is a day of terror (1. 15); (2) it is im- 
minent (1. 14); (3) it comes as a judgment for sin 
(1. 17); (4) it falls upon all creation, man and beast, 
Hebrew and foreigner (1. 2, 3; 2. 4-15; 3. 8); (5) it 
is accompanied by great convulsions in nature (1. 15); 
(6) a remnant consisting of redeemed Hebrews and 
foreigners will escape from its terrors (2. 3; 3. 9-13). 

Zephaniah's Universalism. The vision of the book 
is world-wide. The terrors of the day of Jehovah will 
fall upon all, and in the same manner, from all the 
nations of the earth converts will be won to Jehovah, 
who will bring offerings to him (3. 9, 10). In 2. 11, 



168 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

"Men shall worship him, every one from his place," 
Zephaniah takes a step in advance of the expectation 
expressed in Mic. 4. 1 ; Isa. 2. 2, "all nations shall flow 
unto it," that is, Jerusalem. He moves in the direction 
of the utterance of Jesus, "The hour cometh, when 
neither in this mountain, nor in Jerusalem, shall ye 
worship the Father" (John 4. 21). Though the prophet 
draws a sublime picture of the glories of the Messianic 
age (3. 14-20), he says not a word concerning the per- 
son of the Messianic king. Whatever is accomplished 
is accomplished by Jehovah himself. 

II. NAHUM 
THE PERSONAL HISTORY OF NAHUM 

Date of Nahum. Nahum is the prophet of Nine- 
veh's doom. The whole book centers around the fall 
and destruction of that city. Since the capture of the 
city is represented as still in the future, it seems evident 
that the prophecies were delivered some time before 
607-606, the year in which the city was destroyed. 
Thus the latest possible date of Nahum' s activity is 
fixed. The earliest possible date also is indicated by 
internal evidence. In 3. 8ff. the prophet speaks of the 
capture and destruction of No-Amon, the Egyptian 
Thebes, as an accomplished fact. The expedition of 
Ashurbanapal, king of Assyria, against Egypt, which 
resulted in the fall of Thebes, occurred about 663 B. C. 
Hence the activity of Nahum must be placed some- 
where between 663 and 607. 

As to the exact period between the two dates there 
is disagreement among scholars. One thing is made 
quite clear by the prophecy itself, namely, that at the 
time the words were spoken or written Nineveh was 



CONTEMPORARIES OF JEREMIAH 169 

passing through some grave crisis. Now we know that 
during the second half of the seventh century B. C. 
Assyria was threatened three times: (1) The revolt 
of Shamashshumukin of Babylon against his brother, 
the king of Assyria, 650-648 B. C. (2) The invasion 
of Assyria and threatened attack upon Nineveh by 
some unknown foe, perhaps the Scythians, about 625 
B. C. (3) The final attack, which resulted in the fall 
and destruction of Nineveh in 607-606 B. C. 

The first crisis does not offer a suitable occasion for 
Nahum's prophecy, because at that time the city 
of Nineveh was not in any danger. Little is known 
concerning the second crisis, and it is not possible either 
to prove or to disprove that it gave rise to the book. 
On the other hand, the years immediately preceding 
the downfall of Nineveh offer a most suitable occa- 
sion. The struggle continued for about two years. 
The united forces of the Chaldeans and Scythians met 
determined resistance ; at last a breach was made in the 
northeast corner of the wall, the city was taken, pillaged, 
and burned. Judah had suffered much from the proud 
Assyrian, and it is not difficult to understand how, 
with the doom of the cruel oppressor imminent, a 
prophet-patriot might burst into shouts of exulta- 
tion and triumph over the distress of the cruel foe. 
"If," says A. B. Davidson, "the distress of Nineveh 
referred to were the final one, the descriptions of the 
prophecy would acquire a reality and naturalness 
which they otherwise want, and the general charac- 
teristics of Hebrew prophecy would be more truly con- 
served." There seems to be good reason, therefore, for 
assigning Nahum's activity to a date between 610 and 
607 B. C. 



170 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

The Home of Nahum. Of the personal life of Nahum 
we know practically nothing. In i. i he is called 
"the Elkoshite," that is, an inhabitant of Elkosh. 
Unfortunately, the location of this place is not known. 
One tradition, which cannot be traced beyond the 
sixteenth century A. D., identifies the home of Nahum 
with a modern village Elkush, or Alkosh, not far from 
the left bank of the Tigris, two days' journey north of 
the site of ancient Nineveh. A second tradition, which 
is at least as old as the days of Jerome, the latter part 
of the fourth century, locates Elkosh in Galilee, at a 
place identified by many with the modern El-Kauze, 
near Ramieh. Others identify the home of the prophet 
with the city of Capernaum, whose name means, Village 
of Nahum. A fourth tradition, which is first found 
in a collection of traditions entitled "Lives of the 
Prophets," says, "Nahum was from Elkosh, beyond Bet 
Gabre, of the tribe of Simeon." A place in the south 
is more in harmony with the interest the prophet takes 
in the southern kingdom, so that the last-mentioned 
tradition seems to have much in its favor, but absolute 
certainty is not attainable. 

THE MESSAGE OF NAHUM 

The Book of Nahum has been called "a Pindaric 
ode of triumph over the oppressor's fall." This char- 
acterization is true especially of chapters 2 and 3, 
which describe, in forceful and picturesque language, 
the siege, capture, and destruction of the Assyrian 
city of Nineveh. Chapter 1 may be brought into close 
connection with the other two by interpreting it as 
Jehovah's decree of Nineveh's doom. 

Decree of Nineveh's Doom, Chapter 1. The first 
section of the book (1. 2-15, to which some add 



CONTEMPORARIES OF JEREMIAH 171 

2.2) contains the decree of Nineveh's doom. It opens 
with a sublime description of two aspects of the divine 
character: Jehovah is a God of vengeance and of 
mercy (2, 3). At times he may seem slack in punishing 
iniquity, but retribution will surely overtake the sinner; 
and when Jehovah does appear in judgment no one can 
stand before him, even heaven and earth tremble 
(4-6). In verse 7 the prophet turns to his real theme, 
and shows what bearing the two aspects of the divine 
character have upon the future history of Judah and 
Nineveh. Jehovah will be faithful toward those who 
rely upon him (7), but woe upon his enemies (8)! 
The disappointments of Judah have been many, and 
the prophet feels that the simple statements in 7, 8 
are hardly sufficient to drive away the gloom of de- 
spair. He therefore turns to the people with the ques- 
tion, Do you think that Jehovah cannot or will not 
carry out his threat against your present enemy? 
This is a grievous error, for he will surely bring utter 
destruction upon him (9, 10). In verse 11 he turns to 
Nineveh, to make clear to her why her doom is decreed: 
she has "devised evil against Jehovah." Once more 
glorious deliverance is promised to Judah (12, 13), 
which is followed by a reiteration of the threat against 
Assyria (14). The destruction of the Assyrian will 
mean the exaltation of Judah. Already the prophet 
sees the messengers speeding over the mountains to 
tell the glad news to the hitherto oppressed people. He 
bids Judah to proclaim joyous feasts and pay to 
Jehovah the vows made in adversity (15), [for Jehovah 
is about to restore the excellency of Jacob (2. 2)]. 

Description of Nineveh's Downfall, Chapter 2. 
From the declaration that the doom of Nineveh is de- 



172 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

creed the prophet passes to a description of the carrying 
out of the decree (2. 1-13). The army appointed to 
execute the judgment is already approaching, and the 
city must prepare for defense (1) — for Jehovah is about 
to restore the excellency of Jacob (2). In imagination 
the prophet beholds the terrible onslaught, the glitter- 
ing weapons, the raging chariots (3, 4). Desperate 
efforts are made to save the city, but in vain; it falls 
(5, 6), the queen and her attendants are captured (7), 
the inhabitants flee (8), the city is sacked and left a 
desolation (9, 10). The prophet, gazing upon the 
ruins of the city, cries out exultantly, "Where is the 
den of the lions, and the feeding place of the young 
lions, where the lion and the lioness walked, the lion's 
whelp, and none made them afraid?'' Jehovah has 
made an utter end thereof (11-13). 

The Imminence of Nineveh's Destruction, Chapter 3. 
In 3. 1 the prophet turns once more to Nineveh and 
pronounces a woe upon the bloody city (1). Already 
the noise of the onslaught may be heard and the glitter 
of the arms may be seen (2, 3). The judgment is well 
deserved (4). The part of the harlot she has acted, 
the fate of the harlot she must endure, and no one will 
bemoan her (5-7). Natural strength and resources 
will avail no more in her case than in the case of the 
Egyptian No-amon (8-1 1). The enemy advances, the 
fortresses scattered throughout the land fall, while 
the Assyrian soldiers become feeble and cowardly 
(12, 13). A siege is imminent, preparations for it must 
be made, but all resistance will prove in vain ; the city 
and the inhabitants will be utterly cut off (14-18); 
and the whole earth will rejoice because her power is 
departed from her (19). 



CONTEMPORARIES OF JEREMIAH 173 

THE TEACHING OF NAHUM 

The Character of Jehovah. The utterances of Na- 
hum center around a single theme, the destruction of 
Nineveh. As a result they contain little direct re- 
ligious teaching; and what there is of it is con- 
fined very largely to the opening verses of chapter 1. 
These verses emphasize the twofold manifestation of 
the divine holiness, the divine vengeance, and the divine 
mercy (1. 2, 3). The manifestation of the one results 
in the destruction of the wicked (1. 2), the other in the 
salvation of the oppressed (1. 15; 2. 2). Faith in 
Jehovah will secure the divine favor and protection 

(1. 7). 

Silence Concerning Judah's Sin. In one respect 
Nahum differs widely from his predecessors, namely, in 
his silence concerning the sin and guilt of Judah. The 
other prophets point to the present or impending dis- 
tress and affliction as punishment for sin, and they 
insist that salvation can come only if the people repent 
and turn to Jehovah. ' ' For this Nahum has no thought. 
His heart, for all its bigness, holds room only for the 
bitter memories, the baffled hopes, the unappeased 
hatreds of a hundred years." This silence concerning 
the sins of his own nation is not due to a lack of high 
ethical ideals or to ignorance of the people's con- 
dition, but rather to the narrowness of the prophet's 
purpose in delivering the message. His purpose was 
to point out the hand of God in the impending fall of 
Nineveh and the significance of the catastrophe for the 
oppressed Jews. To do this it was not necessary to 
dwell upon the shortcomings of his people. 

Nahum's Glee over the Ruin of Nineveh. The fierce- 
ness of Nahum, and his glee at the thought of Nine- 



i 7 4 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

veh's ruin, may not be in accord with the injunction, 
1 'Love thine enemy"; but it should be borne in mind 
that it is not personal hatred that prompts the prophet ; 
he is stirred by a righteous indignation over the out- 
rages committed by Assyria. He considers the sin and 
overthrow of Nineveh not merely in their bearing upon 
the fortunes of Judah, but in their relation to the moral 
government of the whole world; hence his voice gives 
utterance to the outraged conscience of humanity. 

Universality of Jehovah's Rule. While Nahum's mes- 
sage, in its direct teaching, appears to be less spiritual 
and ethical than that of his predecessors, it sets in 
a clear light Jehovah's sway over the whole universe, 
and emphasizes the duty of nations as well as of in- 
dividuals to own his sway and obey his will. This 
attitude alone will assure permanent peace and pros- 
perity ; on the other hand, disobedience to his purpose 
and disregard of his rule will surely bring calamity 
and distress. The emphasis of these ethical principles 
gives to the message of Nahum a unique significance 
for the present day and generation. "Assyria in his 
hands," says Kennedy, "becomes an object lesson to 
the empires of the modern world, teaching, as an 
eternal principle of the divine government of the 
world, the absolute necessity, for a nation's continued 
vitality, of that righteousness, personal, civic, and 
national, which alone exalteth a nation." 

The Messianic Outlook. In a broad sense, i. 15 
is of Messianic import. The downfall of Nineveh and 
Assyria prepares the way for the permanent redemption 
and exaltation of Zion: "the wicked one shall no 
more pass through thee." 



CONTEMPORARIES OF JEREMIAH 175 

III. HABAKKUK 
OCCASION OF THE PROPHECY 

Questioning of the Divine Providence. In the Book 
of Habakkuk a new type of prophecy appears. The 
prophets were primarily preachers and teachers of re- 
ligion and ethics. They addressed themselves to their 
fellow countrymen in an attempt to win them back 
to Jehovah and a righteous life. Not so Habakkuk. 
He addresses himself to Jehovah, questioning the 
justice or even the reality of the Divine Providence. 
He makes complaint to God and expostulates with 
him. The prophet Habakkuk, therefore, is a fore- 
runner of the author of the Book of Job. "As a whole 
his book is the fruit of religious reflection; it exhibits 
the communings and questionings of his soul — repre- 
sentative, no doubt, of many other pious spirits of the 
time— with God; and records the answers which the 
Spirit of God taught him for his own sake and for the 
sake of tried souls in every age." 

The Moral Background of the Prophecy. Neither 
the book itself nor any other part of the Old Testa- 
ment throws any light on the personal history of the 
author. It would seem, however, that he lived under 
King Jehoiakim. The pious and well-meaning Josiah 
had been slain in an attempt to stop the advance of 
Egypt against Assyria. With his death the brief era 
of reform came to an end. After a reign of three months 
Jehoahaz was deposed by Pharaoh-necoh, who placed 
Jehoiakim on the throne. The latter was selfish, ty- 
rannical, and godless. In a short time the deplorable 
conditions of Manasseh's reign returned. It was this 
situation that caused the prophet's first perplexity: 
"O Jehovah, how long shall I cry, and thou wilt not 



176 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

hear? I cry out unto thee of violence, and thou wilt 
not save" (i. 2). 

The Historical Background. But the contents of the 
book enable us to fix the date of Habakkuk somewhat 
more definitely. The Chaldeans, whose advance against 
Judah is announced in 1. 5-1 1, were the successors of 
the Assyrians as the conquerors and possessors of 
Western Asia. Now, the verses referred to indicate 
(1) that the Chaldeans had not yet come into direct 
contact with Judah, and (2) that they already had 
given exhibitions of the cruel character of their warfare. 
Nebuchadnezzar made Judah tributary about 600 
B.C.; hence Habakkuk must have prophesied before 
that date. The first real test of the Chaldean power 
was the battle of Carchemish, in 605-604, in which 
Egypt suffered a decisive defeat. From that time on, 
and even before that date, during the final struggle 
with Nineveh and against minor foes, the Chaldeans 
had abundant opportunities to reveal their true char- 
acter, when the prophet and his contemporaries might 
become acquainted with this heartless successor of 
Nineveh. Hence the prophetic activity of Habakkuk 
may be assigned to a date shortly before 600 B. C. 

THE MESSAGE OF HABAKKUK 

The Book of Habakkuk falls naturally into three 
parts: (1) The prophet's twofold perplexity and the 
divine solutions (1. 2 — 2. 5); (2) A taunt-song over 
the downfall of the Chaldeans (2. 6-20); (3) The 
"prayer" of Habakkuk (chapter 3). 

The First Perplexity and its Solution, 1. 1-11. 
The prophecy opens with a complaint about the seem- 
ing indifference of Jehovah in the presence of wide- 



CONTEMPORARIES OF JEREMIAH 177 

spread corruption in Judah. The prophet is perplexed, 
for he cannot reconcile this indifference with his con- 
ception of the character of Jehovah (1. 2-4). In reply 
Jehovah declares that judgment is about to be executed ; 
the executioners are to be the Chaldeans (5-1 1). 

The Second Perplexity and its Solution, 1. 12 — 2. 5. 
This announcement, instead of removing the prophet's 
perplexity, only intensifies it. Can a holy God condone 
the cruelties perpetrated by the Chaldeans? Judah, 
indeed, deserves punishment, but how can a pure and 
righteous God employ the godless Chaldeans as his 
executioners ? Is Judah to be utterly annihilated by this 
monster? Is the triumph of the Chaldeans to con- 
tinue forever? These and similar questions present a 
new problem, which taxes his faith to the utmost 
(1 2-17). But he will not permit his faith to be wrecked ; 
he will wait until he receives a divine solution (2. 1). 
He does not wait in vain. Jehovah grants a solution in 
the form of an inner vision, which is to be made known 
to all. The vision is to be written down (2), because 
the fulfillment will be delayed until the appointed time. 
When it arrives the record on the tablet will testify 
to the truthfulness of Jehovah and of his prophet (3). 

The contents of the vision are stated in brief enig- 
matical form: "Behold, his soul is puffed up, it is not 
upright in him; but the righteous shall live by his 
faith." The meaning of this message is that there is a 
moral distinction between the Chaldeans and the peo- 
ple of Jehovah. The one puffed up, glorying in his own 
might as his god, and insincere in his dealings with 
other nations, lacks the moral elements which alone 
insure permanence, while the other possesses the fidelity 
and moral integrity which mean permanence; he can- 



178 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

not perish, but will endure forever (4). Bearing in 
mind this moral distinction, the prophet may rest 
assured that in the end the righteous Jews will triumph 
while the ungodly Chaldeans must perish. There fol- 
lows a verse that describes more fully the character 
of the Chaldeans (5). 

A Taunt-song over the Downfall of Babylon, 2. 6-20. 
The doom of the cruel oppressor is determined in the 
divine councils, therefore the wronged nations may 
begin to rejoice over his downfall. These nations 
the prophet introduces as taking up a taunt-song 
against the doomed Chaldeans. It is in the form of 
five woes upon the evil traits in the enemy's character 
and his deeds of cruelty: (1) upon lust of conquest 
and plunder (6-8) ; (2) upon rapacity (9-1 1) ; (3) upon 
the building of cities with the blood and property of 
strangers (12-14); (4) upon cruelty toward con- 
quered kings and nations (15-17); (5) upon idolatry 
(18-20). 

The Prayer of Habakkuk, Chapter 3. The prophecy 
closes with a lyrical passage (3. 1-19), called in the 
title "prayer." In a broad sense the entire chapter is 
a prayer, though only verse 2 contains a petition, "O 
Jehovah, revive thy work in the midst of the years; 
in the midst of the years make it known; in wrath 
remember mercy." The petitioner speaks for himself 
and the community. He remembers the mighty works 
of Jehovah for his people; the thought of them causes 
him to tremble; nevertheless he calls for a repetition 
of the ancient manifestations (2). In majestic pic- 
tures the poet describes the wonderful appearances 
of Jehovah in the past. He came forth in awful bright- 
ness, nature and men trembled before him, the rivers 



CONTEMPORARIES OF JEREMIAH 179 

and the sea were dried up, the sun and the moon hid 
themselves in terror (3-1 1). All this was done for 
his chosen people (12-15). In the remaining verses 
the psalmist describes his own feelings at the remem- 
brance of these manifestations: at first, fear and trem- 
bling (16a), then joy and confidence in the God of his 
salvation. Whatever the temporary hardships and 
wants, Jehovah is his portion, and in due time will 
prove himself the God of his salvation (160-19). 

THE TEACHING OF HABAKKUK 

Habakkuk the Prophet of Faith. Habakkuk has 
been called the prophet of faith. He possessed a strong, 
living faith in Jehovah; but he, like many other pious 
souls, was troubled and perplexed by the apparent 
inequalities of life. He found it difficult to reconcile 
these with his lofty conception of Jehovah. Never- 
theless, he does not sulk; boldly he presents his per- 
plexity to Jehovah, who points the way to a solution, 
and the prophet comes forth from his struggle with a 
faith stronger and more intense than ever. 

We might expect that a man with such firm hold 
on God, and with such a living experience of God, 
would give expression, even in a brief book, to some 
great and permanent truths; and in this instance our 
expectations are not disappointed. Habakkuk was a 
contemporary of Jeremiah, but he differs from him in a 
marked manner. Jeremiah is forever denouncing the 
sins of the people; of the Chaldeans he speaks almost 
exclusively as the instruments of Jehovah; he has 
little to say about their cruelties, and does not con- 
demn them. Habakkuk, on the other hand, devotes 
only three verses (1. 2-4) to the sins of Judah; and, 



i8o PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

while recognizing the Chaldeans as instruments of 
Jehovah, he condemns them persistently for their 
wrong-doing, and the climax of the prophecy is the 
affirmation of their ultimate annihilation. In this the 
prophet resembles Nahum, who, like Habakkuk, was 
concerned primarily with the cruelties and the doom 
of the oppressor. 

It is in connection with his attempts to solve the 
perplexing problems raised by the unpunished sins of 
his countrymen and the unlimited success of the Chal- 
deans that Habakkuk gives utterance to two sublime 
truths : 

i . The Universal Supremacy of Jehovah. The latter 
is interested not only in Israel. Though Habakkuk, 
like the other prophets, believes in a special Divine 
Providence over Israel, he is equally convinced that 
Jehovah's rule embraces the whole earth ; the destinies of 
all the nations are in his hand. The Chaldeans are pun- 
ished not merely for their sins against Judah, but for 
the oppression of other nations as well. Being the 
only God, he cannot permit the worship of other 
deities. Temporarily the Chaldeans may worship 
idols, or make might their god, they may "sacrifice 
unto their nets," and burn incense "unto their drag," 
because by them "their portion is fat and their food 
plenteous"; but Jehovah is from everlasting, the Holy 
One, and he will attest his supremacy by utterly 
destroying the boastful conqueror with his idols. 

2. Faithfulness the Guarantee of Permanency. The 
second important truth is expressed in 2. 4, "The 
righteous shall live by his faithfulness." Faithfulness 
assures permanency. The thought expressed by the 
prophet is not identical with that expressed by the 



CONTEMPORARIES OF JEREMIAH 181 

apostle who quotes the words (Gal. 3. 11); neverthe- 
less the former also gives expression to a truth of pro- 
found significance. "Faithfulness" is with the prophet 
an external thing; it signifies integrity, fidelity, stead- 
fastness under all provocations; but this implies, in a 
real sense, the New Testament conception of faith as an 
active principle of right conduct. A living faith de- 
termines conduct; religion and ethics go hand in hand, 
and especially in the hour of adversity a belief in 
Jehovah and unflinching reliance upon him are the 
strongest preservers of fidelity and integrity. Faith 
without works is dead; faith expresses itself in life. 
Habakkuk places chief emphasis upon the expressions 
of faith, and he does so rightly; but in doing this he 
also calls attention, by implication at least, to the 
motive power behind the external manifestations. As 
an expression of living faith 3. 17-19 is not surpassed 
in the Old Testament. 

IV. OBADIAH 
DATE AND PURPOSE OF THE PROPHECY OF OBADIAH 

Why Grouped with the Contemporaries of Jere- 
miah. Nothing is known of the author of this, the 
shortest book in the Old Testament. Nor is the date 
of its origin altogether beyond doubt. However, it 
may be considered in this chapter because (1) there 
are close resemblances between Obad. 1-9 and Jer. 
49. 7-20; and (2), whatever the exact date of com- 
position, it is quite evident that the author looks back 
to the capture of Jerusalem in 586, with which the 
prophet Jeremiah is associated. 

Historical Background of Obadiah. The date of the 
prophecy, which is even at the present time a subject 



182 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

of much discussion, must be determined upon the 
basis of internal evidence, more especially the histor- 
ical references in 11-14. These verses presuppose a 
capture and devastation of Jerusalem as an accom- 
plished fact. If the time of this disaster can be de- 
termined the earliest possible date of the utterance is 
fixed. Now, the Old Testament records four occasions 
when the capital of the southern kingdom fell into the 
hands of invaders, but only the last of these, the cat- 
astrophe of 586, satisfies the language of the verses 
indicated ; and we may safely assert that the prophecy 
in its present form comes from a date subsequent to 
586 B.C. 

Relations of Israel and Edom. The prophecy 
should be understood as a denunciation of Edom's 
hostility during the crisis which resulted in the down- 
fall of the kingdom of Judah. True, the historical 
books do not name Edom as taking an active part in 
the attack on Jerusalem, but the Old Testament 
asserts again and again that the Edomites were bitter 
enemies of the Israelites; and it is evident from refer- 
ences in other exilic and postexilic writings that dur- 
ing the closing days of Judah' s national existence the 
old hostile spirit revived. In Lamentations the poet 
bids the daughter of Edom rejoice and be glad over the 
fall of Judah; but he immediately adds a threat of 
vengeance (4. 21). Ezekiel also announces the doom 
of Edom (25. 12-14; 35. 1-15); and in Psa. 137 the 
poet recalls with indignation the malice of the Edom- 
ites. This spirit of hostility the prophet condemns 
in verses 11-14. 

Date of the Utterance. The earliest date, then, of 
the prophecy in its present form is 586. How much 



CONTEMPORARIES OF JEREMIAH 183 

farther down it is necessary to go is somewhat un- 
certain. There are many scholars who assign the 
little book to the middle of the fifth century, or even 
later; on the other hand, there are those equally 
competent, who believe it unnecessary to go down 
so far. There is nothing in 15-21 that presupposes 
the return from exile. In fact, everything — the hopes 
of restoration, of the destruction of Edom, and of the 
establishment of the kingdom of God — points to the 
period before the restoration. On the whole, therefore, 
the most probable date would seem to be soon after 
586, when the memory of Edom's hostility was still 
fresh in the mind of the author. 

Obadiah and Jeremiah. No one can read Obad. 
1-9 and Jer. 49. 7-22, without feeling that the marked 
resemblances between the two passages cannot be 
mere coincidence. Hence they must be explained 
in one of three ways: Either Obadiah borrowed from 
Jeremiah, or Jeremiah borrowed from Obadiah, or 
both utilized for their own purposes an older prophecy. 

Though the question cannot be determined with 
absolute certainty, on the whole it seems most proba- 
ble that the two prophets derived the elements com- 
mon to them from an earlier prophecy, which Obadiah 
incorporated with few alterations, while Jeremiah 
treated it with greater freedom. Obadiah may have 
been familiar not only with the original prophecy, but 
also with the utterance of Jeremiah depending upon 
it. On the whole, the earlier prophecy would be the 
same as Obad. 1-9, which contains no allusions to the 
destruction of Jerusalem. This older utterance the 
prophet appropriated after the fall of the holy city 
and expanded it in verses 10-21, imitating to some 



i«4 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

extent the language of the earlier portion. The date 
and occasion of the earlier prophecy cannot be fixed 
with certainty. 

THE MESSAGE OF OBADIAH 

The Destruction of Edom, Verses 1-9. Following the 
brief title, the prophet announces his theme: He is 
charged with heavy tidings against Edom. An am- 
bassador is gone forth from Edom to summon the sur- 
rounding nations to war against Judah (1); but 
Jehovah will thwart the scheme. He can no longer 
endure the ill treatment of his people, therefore he has 
decreed the downfall of the house of Esau (2). Noth- 
ing can save. Though the Edomites think themselves 
secure in their lofty rock-hewn dwellings, though they 
may rise up like eagles and build their nests among the 
stars, Jehovah will bring them down and humble them 
(3, 4). The destruction will be complete; nothing 
will escape the invader (5, 6). The nations with which 
Edom sought alliances will prove treacherous; her 
own men of wisdom and of war will be cut off (7-9). 

The Sins of Edom, Verses 10-16. The judgment 
will fall because Edom has done violence to Jacob in 
the day of Jerusalem's calamity (10, 11). The prophet, 
either in reality or in imagination, sees the Edomites 
rejoicing in their inhumanities, and bids them to de- 
sist from cruel looks and words (12), from overt acts 
of spoliation (13), and from cutting off the fugitives 
at the crossways and delivering to the enemies "those 
of his that remain in the day of distress " (14). 

From the description of the crimes the prophet 
turns once more to the retribution. The Edomites are 
to be cut off forever; and though the judgment will 
fall upon all nations, Edom will suffer most (15, 16). 



CONTEMPORARIES OF JEREMIAH 185 

The Exaltation of the Jews, Verses 17-21. The 

announcement of doom upon the nations is followed 
by a promise of restoration to Israel. A remnant will 
escape in Mount Zion (17). The redeemed of the 
house of Jacob and of the house of Joseph will be used 
by God to bring destruction upon the house of Esau 
(18). Edom destroyed, the territory of the purified 
remnant will be extended in every direction (19, 20). 
Saviours will arise in Zion, whose sway will extend 
over the mountain of Esau, and over all will be es- 
tablished the rule of Jehovah (21). 

TEACHING OF OBADIAH 

The prophet has a twofold purpose: (1) To an- 
nounce judgment upon Edom; (2) By this announce- 
ment to bring comfort and hope to the cruelly wronged 
people of God. In setting forth these convictions the 
prophet, directly or indirectly, gives expression to 
several truths prominent in all the prophetic books. 
The more important of these are: 1". The special 
interest of Jehovah in Israel. Temporarily he may 
permit her enemies to triumph, but in the end he must 
vindicate himself and his people. 2. Obadiah shares 
with other prophets the hope for the establishment 
of a new kingdom of God, centering in Mount Zion 
and Jerusalem. 3. Holiness will be the chief char- 
acteristic of the new kingdom. 4. There is no direct 
reference to a Messianic king; "the kingdom shall be 
Jehovah's." However, the saviours mentioned in verse 
21 are representatives of Jehovah like the Messianic 
king of other prophetic books. 5. Obadiah does 
not look for the conversion of the nations outside of 
Israel; nothing but disaster is awaiting them (16-18). 



CHAPTER IX 
EZEKIEL 

JUDAH IN EXILE 

Causes of Judah's Downfall. The destruction of 
Jerusalem in 586 marked the close of the national life 
of the Hebrews. Judah, like the northern kingdom, 
went to its doom in accordance with the same un- 
changeable laws that operate in the lives of all nations. 
Religious, social, and moral corruption will inevitably 
cause national disintegration. In the case of Judah 
selfish and inefficient rulers had hastened the process 
by the pursuit of a weak and vacillating policy that 
brought upon them the destructive wrath of the Chal- 
deans. 

Difference between Israel and Judah. But there 
was a difference between the downfall of Judah and 
that of Israel. The latter was soon swallowed up by 
the surrounding nations, and never again played an 
important part in the religious history of the world. 
This was due to the fact that in Israel religion had not 
advanced beyond the national stage, so that, when 
the nation was destroyed, religion, which was bound to 
the national institutions, could not maintain itself, 
except, perhaps, in the lives of a few individuals, who 
were not numerous enough to save it. In Judah it was 
different. Jeremiah's teaching and activity made it 
possible for religion to live, though the temple, the 
holy city, and the state should go to ruin. He de- 
nationalized religion, he individualized and spiritualized 

186 



THE PROPHET EZEKIEL 187 

it, so that many came to see that they might continue 
as true worshipers of Jehovah, no matter what 
became of the external religious institutions. Un- 
doubtedly, when the final crisis came, many failed to 
endure the test and went the way of their brothers 
in the north; nevertheless, a considerable number of 
Jews overcame their environment, and their faith in 
Jehovah, the one and only God, triumphed. However, 
these faithful ones were not found among those who 
were left behind in Judah, nor among the fugitives who 
fled to Egypt, but in the groups of Jewish captives that 
had been carried to Babylonia by Nebuchadnezzar 
in 597 and 586. Upon these exiles depended the future 
of the Jewish race and of the Jewish religion. 

The Two Exiles. The first exile occurred in 597, 
when the leaders and the more substantial men in the 
southern kingdom were carried away. Nebuchadnezzar 
contented himself with removing the ''heads and the 
hands" of the nation, in the hope that by this act he 
would make the population left behind incapable of 
organized resistance. From this time on to the second 
deportation in 586 the life of the Jews ran in two paral- 
lel streams, one in Judah, the other in Babylonia. 
But the Babylonian king was disappointed. The 
enfeebled remnant left behind quickly regained its 
military efficiency, and in a few years a new struggle 
ensued, which resulted in a second exile, when a much 
larger portion of the population was carried away. 

External Condition of the Exiles. The condition 
of the exiles in Babylonia was fairly comfortable. They 
appear to have been free in all respects except choice 
of residence. Sections of land were assigned to them, 
where they had the opportunity to acquire property 



188 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

and even to amass wealth. Many heeded the advice 
of Jeremiah (29. 5-7), identified themselves with the 
interests of their masters, and lived settled lives in 
peaceful industry and family happiness. Permission 
was granted to them to form settlements under their 
own elders, who in all probability organized the new 
communities after the pattern of Palestinian towns. 
Religious as well as civil liberty was granted, so that 
in its general aspects the life in Babylonia may have 
differed but little from that in the small towns of Judah 
before the fall of the state. 

Religious and Moral Conditions of the Exiles. Re- 
ligious and moral conditions may have continued for 
some time as they were before the exile. True, both 
Jeremiah and Ezekiel consider the exiles better than the 
Jews left behind, and they see in the former the nucleus 
of the Messianic kingdom ; nevertheless, the conditions 
which confronted Jeremiah in Jerusalem were essen- 
tially the same as those which troubled Ezekiel among 
the exiles. Many of the captives conformed to Baby- 
lonian customs and forgot Jerusalem. Idolatry and 
superstition were widespread, and some seemed to 
think that idolatry was perfectly compatible with a 
nominal allegiance to Jehovah (Ezek. 14. iff.; 20. iff.). 
During the years preceding the fall of Jerusalem false 
prophets appeared among the exiles prophesying 
smooth things and promising a speedy restoration 
(Jer. 29. 8fL), and they persuaded many to oppose 
the earnest and severe message of Ezekiel (Ezek. 2. 3IL; 
3. 4ff.). The sense of personal responsibility, which 
Jeremiah had sought to create in Judah, was but 
slightly felt by the great majority in exile. Many were 
the complaints that they had to bear the sins of their 



THE PROPHET EZEKIEL 189 

ancestors (18. 2, 25; 33. 10, 17, 20; 37. 11). It is seen, 
then, that the great mass of people had failed to learn 
the lessons which the judgment of exile was to teach 
them. 

The Faithful among the Exiles. Nevertheless, there 
were in exile many men of piety and zeal, who re- 
tained their faith in Jehovah; yea, whose faith was 
purified and intensified by the experiences of the exile. 
They were ready to follow the teaching of any great 
soul who might attempt to lead them to higher and 
diviner things. Among these choice spirits Ezekiel 
found a congenial sphere of activity. In every crisis 
of Hebrew history prophecy had been a mighty power 
for good. The prophets had foretold the captivity, 
and it had now come. But they had also foretold the 
restoration of a remnant; and it was this prediction 
that now sustained the faithful exiles. Ezekiel's glow- 
ing words kept alive the hope, and at the same time 
tended to bring the whole people into a more vital 
relation with their God, such as Jeremiah had em- 
phasized, and as individuals here and there had en- 
joyed even before the exile. Self-examination and con- 
trition for the past led to a return to Jehovah, and the 
exiles came to see more and more that, after all, true 
religion did not depend upon the existence of the state, 
or the sacred city, or the temple itself, but upon 
the relation of the individual to his God. For the 
history of Judaism and of religion in general the Baby- 
lonian exile was of the greatest significance. 

THE PERSONAL LIFE OF EZEKIEL 

Ezekiel's Preparation for the Prophetic Office. 

Ezekiel, the son of Buzi, was a priest (1. 3). As such 
he belonged to the aristocracy in Jerusalem and was 



i 9 o PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

carried into exile in 597. Little or nothing is known 
of his earlier life. His familiarity with the priestly 
ritual may suggest that he was old enough when he 
left Jerusalem to have officiated for some time in the 
national sanctuary. The authority with which he 
speaks and the deference shown him by his fellow exiles 
also suggest that he was no longer in his first youth 
when he assumed the prophetic office. If so, he may 
have been acquainted with Jeremiah ; and the numerous 
points of contact between the two prophets would 
seem to indicate that he was a disciple of the older man, 
or at least that the latter's teaching had made a pro- 
found impression upon him. "In his character and 
work these two currents of influence — the priestly and 
prophetical — constantly appear, and their harmonious 
blending is one of the great sources of his power. " He 
undoubtedly knew of the reform era under Josiah and 
he lived through the reactionary reign of Jehoiakim. 
When he entered the prophetic office conditions 
among his fellow exiles must have been bad; at any 
rate, he had a very low opinion of his countrymen 
in Jerusalem and in Babylonia. He calls them "re- 
bellious, . . . impudent, . . . stiff -hearted, . . . briers, 
. . . thorns, . . . scorpions' ' (chapters 2 and 3). 

Ezekiel in Babylonia. In Babylonia he was settled 
in a community of exiles at Tel-Abib — perhaps, more 
accurately, Tel-Abub — by the river Chebar. There 
he lived with his wife in his own house (3. 24), where 
in later years the elders came to listen to him (8. 1). 
The prophetic call came to him in the fifth year of 
his exile, that is, in 593 or 592 (1. 2fL). His own ac- 
count of this spiritual crisis reveals the two motives 
which influenced him throughout his entire ministry: 



THE PROPHET EZEKIEL 191 

on the one hand, the vision of the majesty, glory, and 
purity of Jehovah; on the other hand, the realization 
of the startling contrast between the character of his 
countrymen and the divine ideal for them. Henceforth 
his sole ambition was to persuade the house of Israel 
to realize this divine ideal. 

Activity to the Fall of Jerusalem. Until 586, when 
Jerusalem fell, Ezekiel devoted himself almost ex- 
clusively to combating the false hopes of a speedy 
restoration entertained by many both in Jerusalem and 
in exile. It is only natural that during this period 
denunciations and threats should predominate. His 
message was received no more kindly than was that of 
Jeremiah (3. 25). Toward the close of this period the 
prophet's wife died (24. 16-18). This bereavement 
came near the beginning of the last siege of Jerusalem 
and marked the close of Ezekiel's earlier ministry. 
During this period prophecies are dated in the fifth, 
sixth, seventh, and ninth years of Jehoiachin's cap- 
tivity. While the siege was in progress the prophet 
seems to have refrained from speaking (24. 27), but 
when the news of the city's fall reached him he spoke 
again (33. 22). During the period of silence he wrote 
prophecies concerning Egypt (29. 1; 30. 20; 31. 1). 

Later Activity. When his predictions of the fall of 
Jerusalem were fulfilled a great change came over the 
popular attitude; henceforth Ezekiel enjoyed the 
veneration of all the Jews in Babylon, and his in- 
fluence extended to his fellow believers everywhere. 
His message also assumed a different aspect, for he 
now dwelt more and more upon the coming restora- 
tion. According to the dates given in the book, this 
period of activity was short, and was succeeded by 



i 9 2 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

many years of silence. No date is given between the 
twelfth and the twenty-fifth year (32.17; 40. 1). Dur- 
ing this interval the prophet's conviction of a resto- 
ration grew, and at the close he composed a complete, 
detailed scheme for the establishment of a religious 
community upon Palestinian soil, in which the will 
of God would be supreme law (chapters 40-48). 

Peculiarity of EzekiePs Work. In spirit and ear- 
nestness Ezekiel was a prophet as truly as were any 
of the men whose teaching and activity we have studied 
thus far, but the changes in the national life gave a 
new aspect to his prophetic activity. Even during the 
years preceding the fall of Jerusalem he could not 
address himself to the nation in the way in which his 
predecessors had done, for he and his listeners were re- 
moved from the old center of the national and religious 
life. Inevitably the individual assumed an importance 
undreamed of before. Jeremiah had prepared the way 
for this, and Ezekiel followed in his footsteps. Hither- 
to public discourse had been the principal means of 
prophetic instruction; Ezekiel continued to use this 
to some extent, but it was impossible in exile to gather 
crowds such as might be collected in Jerusalem, to 
listen to the addresses of a prophet. Ezekiel had to 
deal with individuals and small groups of individuals, 
and he readily adapted himself to the changed con- 
ditions. He became preeminently a pastor, a shepherd, 
devoting himself to the care of those who came under 
his immediate charge. He frequently designates 
himself a watchman, appointed by God (3. 17). He 
clearly defines his pastoral responsibilities: If he faith- 
fully warns those who are committed to his care he is 
innocent in the sight of God, but if he fails in his duty 



THE PROPHET EZEKIEL 193 

their blood will be required of him (33. 1-9). His fellow 
exiles seem to have fully recognized his position as 
pastor, for they freely came to consult him, either in 
person or through their elders (14. 1; 33. 30). 

Variety of EzekiePs Methods of Work. The variety 
of methods which Ezekiel employed to impress his 
message upon his countrymen is quite remarkable. 
As has been indicated, sometimes he used the method 
of public discourse. In 6. 11, "Smite with thy hand, 
and stamp with thy foot," we may have a reference 
to gestures as means of making the message more 
impressive. Frequently deputations of Jews came 
to his house and sat before him (14. 1), which im- 
plies that the interviews and discussions continued 
for some time. At other times he may have put his 
message in the form of pastoral letters; indeed, as 
has been suggested, all of Ezekiel's prophecies "bear 
evidence of long meditation and careful elabora- 
tion. . . . He dwells upon his subject, and expands 
and develops his thought, in contrast to the terse, 
sharp utterances of the older prophets. Not content 
with an outline, he fills in the details of the picture, 
sometimes to the detriment of its distinctness." 

Parables, Allegories, Visions, Symbolical Acts. Eze- 
kiel shows great fondness for parables and allegories 
as means of instruction, some of which are developed 
to considerable length. The book also abounds in 
visions and symbolical actions. There seems in- 
sufficient reason for questioning the reality of all the 
visions recorded. The prophet evidently was of a 
highly imaginative temperament, and so may have 
been subject to trances or visions. Certainly, when 
the prophet put the visions in writing he may have 



i 9 4 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

elaborated them, and in some cases it is not alto- 
gether improbable that he used the form of the vision 
simply as a literary device for the purpose of making 
his message more vivid. Some of the symbolical acts 
recorded were undoubtedly performed by the prophet ; 
on the other hand, there are some references to sym- 
bolical actions that are more naturally explained on 
the principle suggested by A. B. Davidson: "They were 
imagined merely. They passed through the prophet's 
mind. He lived in this ideal sphere ; he went through 
the actions in his fantasy, and they appeared to him to 
carry the same effects as if they had been performed.' ' 

THE MESSAGE OF EZEKIEL 

Arrangement of the Book of Ezekiel. The Book 
of Ezekiel was probably compiled by the prophet 
himself toward the close of his ministry. It consists 
of three sections, dealing with three different subjects: 
i. Chapters 1-24, the sin of Judah and its punishment; 
2. Chapters 25-32, oracles against foreign nations; 3. 
Chapters 33-48, Israel's future restoration: (1) chap- 
ters 33-39, prophecies of restoration; (2) chapters 
40-48, the constitution of the restored Israel. 

The Inaugural Vision of Ezekiel, Chapter 1. The 
first section (1. 1 — 3. 21) records the prophet's call and 
initiation into his ministry. In the fifth year of his 
exile (1. 1 — 3) he had a vision of Jehovah in his majesty 
and splendor. He saw a storm cloud advancing from 
the north (4) ; out of it came the likeness of four living 
creatures, each with four faces and wings, all moving 
in the same direction (5-14). The four figures in- 
closed a four-sided chariot with four wheels (15, 16). 
The movements of the wheels corresponded to those 



THE PROPHET EZEKIEL 195 

of the creatures, because the same spirit was in both 
(17-21). Over the heads of the creatures a firmament 
was spread out (22-25), and above the firmament 
was the likeness of a throne, upon which was "a like- 
ness as the appearance of a man," surrounded by 
brightness, which represented the glory of Jehovah 
(26-28). 

EzekiePs Appointment as a Prophet, Chapters 2, 3. 
While the vision passed before him Ezekiel heard the 
voice of Jehovah appointing him a prophet to the chil- 
dren of Israel. At the same time he is warned that his 
message will meet opposition (2. 1-7). Then follows 
a symbolical representation of the communication of 
Jehovah's words to the prophet. The words are in- 
scribed on a roll, which he eats at the divine com- 
mand (2. 8 — 3. 3). Jehovah repeats the commissions 
He is to be a prophet to the house of Israel, not to "a 
people of a strange speech"; but his own people will 
refuse to heed his message (4-9). His special mission 
is to those of the house of Israel who are in exile (10-15). 
Among the exiles at Tel-abib there comes to him the 
consciousness of the real character of his work; he is 
appointed "a watchman unto the house of Israel," 
and it behooves him to discharge faithfully the duties 
of his office (16-21). 

Four Symbolical Actions and their Significance, 3. 
22 — 5. 17. Chapters 3. 22 — 7. 27 contain a series of 
utterances and symbolical actions announcing the 
impending fall of Judah and Jerusalem. Chapter 
3. 22-27 is introductory. The vision of Jehovah comes 
to him again, and he is commanded to withdraw 
temporarily from his public ministry. In 4. 1 — 5. 4 
four symbolical actions are recorded, representing the 



196 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

siege of Jerusalem (4. 1-3), the people bearing their 
iniquity (4-8), the privations undergone by the people 
during the siege and subsequent exile in an unclean 
land (9-17), and the slaughter and dispersion of the 
inhabitants of Jerusalem (5. 1-4). Then follows an 
explanation of the four symbolical acts: Jerusalem, 
favored more than other nations, has surpassed them 
in wickedness (5, 6); therefore judgment, which will 
come in the forms of pestilence, famine, sword, and 
exile, is inevitable (7-17). 

The Utter Destruction of Judah, Chapters 6, 7. 
Not the city only but the whole land — called "the 
mountains of Israel" — is guilty, therefore the whole 
land must suffer. The high places, the altars, and the 
sun-images, all connected with idolatrous worship, will 
be destroyed with the worshipers who gather there 
(6. 1-7); yet a faithful remnant will escape (8-10). 
The threat of utter devastation is repeated. Chapter 
7 is a new announcement of the downfall of Judah. 
The end is come upon the four corners of the land (1-4), 
and upon its inhabitants (5-9), for the abominations 
which they have done. All alike will be humiliated 
and perish (10-13). Terror will fall upon all, and little 
resistance will be offered (14-18) ; their silver and gold 
will avail nothing in the day of the siege and will be- 
come the prey of the enemy (19-22). The worst of the 
nations will be sent to punish their crimes ; prophets, 
priests, and rulers will fail in the hour of distress; 
"I will do unto them after their way, and according 
to their deserts will I judge them; and they shall 
know that I am Jehovah" (23-27). 

Idolatry Practiced in the Temple Precincts, Chap- 
ter 8. In the sixth year of his exile, in the sixth 



THE PROPHET EZEKIEL 197 

month, on the fifth day, Ezekiel, in the presence of 
the elders who had come to consult him, fell into a 
trance, in which he was transported to Jerusalem, 
where a series of events passed before his eyes (8. 1-4). 
On awaking he related all the things he had seen 
(11. 25). The visions which came to him at that time 
are recorded in chapters 8-1 1. Chapter 8 deals with 
various forms of idolatry practiced in the precincts 
of the temple: the image of jealousy (5, 6), the secret 
abominations of the elders (7-13), the lamentation 
of the women for Tammuz (14, 15), and the worship 
of the sun (16-18). 

Slaughter of the Inhabitants of Jerusalem, Chap- 
ter 9. Chapter 9 portrays the slaughter of the 
inhabitants of the city. Jehovah summons the mes- 
sengers who are to execute the judgment threatened 
in 8. 18. Six men respond and stand by the side of 
the brazen altar (1, 2). A mark is placed upon the 
foreheads of the faithful, and all not so marked are 
slain (3-7). When the prophet sees the awful slaughter 
he intercedes and prays that the slaughter cease (8), 
but he is told that the people's sin is too great and 
must be punished (9-1 1). 

Jehovah's Departure from the Sanctuary, Chap- 
ter 10. The prophet again beholds the cherubim 
and the wheels, which he saw in his inaugural vision 
(10. 1-5, 9-17, 20-22). At the divine command burn- 
ing coals are taken from the fire between the cherubim 
and scattered over the city (2, 6, 7). Jehovah leaves 
his throne, and stands over the threshold of the temple 
to watch the execution of his orders (4-17); this 
done, he resumes his seat upon his throne, and takes 
his departure from the sanctuary (18, 19). 



198 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

Jehovah's Departure from the Doomed Jerusalem, 
Chapter n. He next sees twenty-five leading men 
of the city counseling rebellion, in the belief that the 
city walls would offer ample protection (it. 1-4). 
At the divine command he informs them that their 
confidence is not well founded; the city will be taken 
and they will be dragged out and slain (5-12). While 
the prophet is yet speaking one of the leaders drops 
dead; whereupon, in terror, the prophet falls upon 
his face and prays for the preservation of at least a 
remnant (13). He is assured that Israel will continue 
to live in the exiles, who are to be restored, and then 
will serve Jehovah with a new heart and a new spirit 
(14-20). The wicked Jerusalem and its inhabitants 
must perish (21). Finally the prophet sees the glory 
of Jehovah depart from the city and rest upon Mount 
Olives, in the east (22-25). 

Symbolical Acts Portraying the Downfall of Jeru- 
salem, Chapter 12. The certainty of the nation's 
downfall and its cause, namely, the people's sinfulness, 
is set forth in a series of discourses and symbolical 
acts recorded in chapters 12-19. The house of Israel 
is blind (12. 1, 2), therefore a more vivid form of 
teaching must be adopted (3). The prophet's prepara- 
tion to go into exile is to symbolize the approaching 
exile of Zedekiah and of the inhabitants of Jerusalem 
(3-16). Another symbolical act is meant to bring 
before the people the anguish and privations of the 
impending exile (17-20). Delay in the fulfillment of 
a prophecy does not imply necessarily nonfulfillment 
(21-25); Jehovah will carry out the present threat in 
the near future (26-28). 

The Lying Prophets and the Doom of the Corrupt 



THE PROPHET EZEKIEL 199 

City, Chapters 13, 14. In the succeeding verses 
(13. 1 — 14. 11) Ezekiel takes up the subject of lying 
prophets. The lying prophets are without visions, 
hence they follow their own spirit (13. 1-3). They 
have deceived and are still trying to deceive the 
people (4-7), therefore destruction will overtake 
them (8, 9). Their message of peace has led the 
people astray, and people and prophets will perish 
alike (10-16). The false prophetesses, whose activities 
are especially pernicious, will be severely punished 
(17-23). Idolaters need expect no divinely given 
message from a prophet (14. 1-8). If a prophet is 
deceived and prophesies to please the people, he and 
they will perish together (9-1 1). The presence of 
righteous persons is no guarantee of safety for the 
unrighteous; only the righteous will escape (12-20). 
Contrary to this rule a few godless persons will escape 
in the destruction of Jerusalem, to convince the exiles 
by their unholy conduct that the judgment that has 
fallen upon the city is well merited (21-23). 

Allegories Teaching Jerusalem's Ripeness for Judg- 
ment, Chapters 15, 16. In a series of allegories 
the prophet points out that Jerusalem is ripe for 
judgment. Like a useless vine it is about to be cast 
into the fire (15. 1-8) . By the allegory of the foundling 
child who became the faithless wife of her benefactor 
the prophet shows the inevitableness of Jerusalem's 
destruction. In the beginning Jerusalem — represent- 
ing the whole nation — was an outcast infant (16. 1-5), 
but Jehovah adopted her, and under his care she 
grew to womanhood (6, 7), when he made her his 
wife (8-14). But soon she broke her marriage vow, 
and on many occasions proved faithless to her husband 



2oo PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

(15-34). Therefore the punishment of an adulteress 
will be meted out to her (35-43). She is worse than 
Sodom and Samaria (44-52). Hence her punishment 
will be severer and will last longer than that of these 
cities. Only after they are restored (53-58) can she 
be restored to the divine favor (59-63). 

The Disloyalty of Zedekiah and its Consequences, 
Chapter 17. The disloyalty of Zedekiah to the king 
of Babylon and its consequences is the subject of 
chapter 17. The prophet is ordered to put forth a 
riddle or parable (1, 2) : A great eagle came to Lebanon 
and took the top of the cedar, the topmost of the 
young twigs, and carried it to a city of merchants 
(3, 4). He also took the seed of the land, planted it 
and cared for it till it became a luxuriant vine (5, 6). 
There was also another eagle, and in time the vine 
turned its branches toward him (7, 8) ; for which 
treachery the vine will be plucked up and wither 
(9, 10). The explanation of the parable is supplied 
in verses 11-21. The first eagle represents the king 
of Babylon, who came to Jerusalem and carried into 
exile King Jehoiachin (11, 12); then he placed upon 
the throne Zedekiah, who became his vassal (13, 14); 
in the course of time Zedekiah rebelled and sought 
help from the other eagle, the king of Egypt (15); 
for this treachery king and people must suffer (16-21). 
The prophecy closes with a promise of a brighter day, 
when Jehovah will plant another shoot of the cedar, 
which will grow into a large tree (22-24) — a promise 
of the advent of the ideal ruler of David's dynasty. 

Individual Responsibility before God, Chapter 18. 
In chapter 18 Ezekiel discusses the moral freedom 
and responsibility of the individual man before God, 



THE PROPHET EZEKIEL 201 

a doctrine taught by Jeremiah, but treated here at 
greater length. The prophet's contemporaries com- 
plained that they were suffering for the sins of their 
fathers (1, 2). Not so, replies Ezekiel, every one is 
rewarded according to his own doings: the righteous 
man lives, the unrighteous man dies; the fate of each 
is altogether independent of the merits or demerits 
of his fathers (3-20). Similarly, the fate of a man is 
not determined by his own previous life: the wicked 
man who repents will live, while the righteous man 
who turns from his righteousness must die (21-29); 
therefore let every one turn to Jehovah and live, for 
he has no pleasure in the death of him that dies (30-32). 

Dirge over the Fall of Judah, Chapter 19. Chapter 
19 contains r a dirge over the fall of Judah and the 
two princes, Jehoahaz and Jehoiachin, under the two 
figures of a lioness and her whelps (1-9), and a vine 
and its branches (10-14). 

Jehovah must Punish Judah's Rebellion, Chapter 
20. Chapters 20-24 contain further oracles concern- 
ing the doom of Judah and Jerusalem. As on another 
occasion (14. 1), the elders came to consult Jehovah 
through Ezekiel (20. 1). Jehovah replies that he will 
not be inquired of them (2-4). His attitude toward 
them is determined by their attitude toward him. 
In Egypt (4-9), in the wilderness (10-26), and in the 
promised land (27-32) they rebelled against him and 
he punished them ; in the same manner he must punish 
their present rebellion and idolatry (33-39). When 
the punishment has accomplished its disciplinary pur- 
pose they will be received back into the divine favor 
(40-44). 

Chapter 20. 45-49 (Hebrew, 21. 1-5) contains a 



h 



202 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

prophecy against the forests of the south — a fire will 
devour them. The verses are a symbolic repiesenta- 
tion of the overthrow of Judah. j 

Imminence of Jerusalem's Destruction, Chapter 21. 
The destruction of Jerusalem is announced under 
the figure of a sharpened sword, which Jehovah wields 
against the city (21. 1-17). Then follows a symbolic 
narrative, setting forth the imminent ruin of Jerusalem. 
The king of Babylon is represented as casting lots to 
find out whether he should attack Jerusalem or Rabbah, 
the capital of Ammon. The lot falls upon the former 
on account of her sins (18-27). Ammon too will 
fall before the invader (28-32). 

Total Depravity of Jerusalem, Chapter 22. The 
prophet presents a new indictment against Jeru- 
salem in chapter 22. The city is totally depraved, 
her principal crimes being bloodshed and idolatry 
(1-5), but there are many other sins to arouse the 
resentment of Jehovah (6-12). There is no escape 
from the terrors of judgment (13-16). With the 
burning heat of the smelter's furnace the fire of the 
divine wrath will be poured upon them (17-22). 
Princes, prophets, priests, and people are equally 
corrupt and must suffer together (23-31). 

Allegorical Representation of the History of 
Judah and Israel, Chapter 23. Chapter 23 is a 
description of the history of Israel and Judah under 
the figure of the career of two sisters, Oholah and 
Oholibah, whom Jehovah married, but who were 
faithless to him and ran after many lovers (1-5). 
Oholah, that is, Israel, committed whoredom with 
Assyria and Egypt (6-8), for which Jehovah punished 
her by delivering her into the hands of Assyria (9, 10). 



THE PROPHET EZEKIEL 203 

Oholibah, that is, Jerusalem, committed whoredom 
with Assyria (11-13), with the Chaldeans (14-18), 
and with Egypt (19-21); therefore she must share 
her sister's fate (22-35). The chapter closes with a 
new description of the immoralities of Oholah and 
Oholibah, followed by a threat of judgment (36-49). 

Last Oracle against Jerusalem, Chapter 24. 
Chapter 24 contains Ezekiel's last oracle against 
Jerusalem, delivered in the ninth year of the prophet's 
exile, in the tenth month, on the tenth day of the 
month, that is, near the beginning of the final siege 
of Jerusalem, in January, 587 B. C. The siege and 
capture are described in the form of a parable. A 
caldron is to be set on the fire, filled with water ; pieces 
of flesh are to be cast into it, and fuel is to be piled 
under it, that it may boil furiously. The caldron 
represents Jerusalem, the pieces of flesh the inhabi- 
tants, the fire and boiling the siege with its terrors 
(1-5). The judgment comes as a punishment for sin, 
which cleaves like rust to the caldron (6-8). The 
threat is renewed in verses 9-14. In verses 15-27 
an incident in Ezekiel's family life is made the vehicle 
of a message to the exiles. The prophet's wife dies 
suddenly; but he is forbidden to give open expression 
to his grief, as a sign that the Jews will be dumb 
with anguish when they hear of the fall of Jerusalem. 

Prophecies Concerning Foreign Nations, Chapters 
25-32. Chapters 25-32 contain prophecies concerning 
foreign nations. "The insertion of these oracles in 
this place is an instance of the constructive skill 
which planned the order of the book. They fill up 
the interval of silence which separates the two periods 
of Ezekiel's ministry. . . . The section, moreover, em- 



2o 4 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

bodies a distinct idea in the prophet's eschatological 
scheme. The motive of the judgments announced is 
to prepare the way for the restoration of Israel, by 
removing the evil influences which had sprung from 
the people's contact with its heathen neighbors in 
the past (28. 24-26; 29. 16)." Seven nations are 
mentioned: Ammon, Moab, Edom, Philistia, Tyre, 
Sidon, and Egypt. Most of the prophecies are brief; 
only those against Egypt and Tyre are elaborated. 

Prophecies against Ammon, Moab, Edom, Phil- 
istia, Chapter 25. Chapter 25 contains prophecies 
against four peoples: Ammon will be overrun because 
it rejoiced in the calamity which befell the people 
and city of Jehovah (1-7), and a similar fate will 
befall Moab (8-1 1). Jehovah will also avenge upon 
Edom (12-14) and Philistia (15-17) the wrongs done 
to his people. 

Prophecies Concerning Tyre and Sidon, Chapters 
26-28. Chapters 26. 1 — 28. 19 center around Tyre. 
Chapter 26 is a prophecy of Tyre's destruction. Tyre 
has mocked Jerusalem in her calamity, therefore she 
too will be broken down (1-6) ; the instrument of the 
divine wrath will be Nebuchadnezzar and his armies 
(7-14); the news of her fall will cause consternation 
and lamentation everywhere (15-18). The city will 
surely be plunged into eternal darkness, her place 
will be with the dead, and never again will she be 
seen among the living (19-21). 

Chapter 27 is a dirge over the downfall of Tyre, 
which is represented as a ship laden with manifold 
treasures, but steered by its pilots into dangerous 
waters, where it suffers shipwreck. The prophet first 
describes the ship, the timbers, furnishings, and 



THE PROPHET EZEKIEL 205 

manning (1-11). Many nations hasten to place their 
wares and merchandise on the ship (12-25); but out 
on the high sea it is suddenly wrecked and its treasures 
lost in the deep (26, 27). Consternation will spread 
everywhere, and men will bitterly wail over the 
dreadful calamity (28-35). 

Chapter 28. 1-19 is directed against the king of 
Tyre. He may now boast in his riches, power, and 
wisdom, but he will be helpless in the day when the 
nations advance against him (1-10). This is followed 
by a dirge over his downfall (11-19). 

Sidon, another powerful city of Phoenicia, is threat- 
ened with an invasion and siege (20-23). Afterward 
Israel, restored and delivered from neighbors who 
are pricking briers and thorns, will dwell in safety 
(24-26). 

Six Oracles against Egypt, Chapters 29-32. Chap- 
ters 29-32 consist of a group of six oracles against 
Egypt, delivered, with one exception (29. 17-21), 
near the fall of Jerusalem. Pharaoh, the proud river 
dragon, and his people will be destroyed or scattered, 
because they have defied Jehovah and, after seducing 
Judah with promises of support, have failed to stand 
by her (29. 1-12). At the end of forty years Egypt 
will be restored as ''the basest of the kingdoms" 
(13-16). Verses 17-21 form an appendix to the pre- 
ceding, added sixteen years later: Nebuchadnezzar 
will be compensated by the conquest of Egypt for his 
unsuccessful attack upon Tyre (17-20). After the 
conquest of Egypt Israel's prosperity will revive (21). 

Chapter 30 consists of two prophecies announcing 
the speedy overthrow of Egypt. The first declares 
that the whole land will be overrun, the cities de- 



2o6 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

stroyed, the king overthrown, and the people carried 
into exile (1-19). The second refers to a recent 
defeat of Pharaoh (20, 21) and predicts additional 
disasters (22-26). 

Chapter 31 pictures the fall of the Pharaoh under 
the figure of the cutting down of a great cedar. Chap- 
ter 32. 1-16 is a dirge over Egypt's disgrace. The 
Pharaoh, representing Egypt, is likened to a crocodile 
dragged from its accustomed haunts and cast upon 
the dry land; its giant body covers the mountains 
and the valleys, and the blood streaming from it 
stains the earth; heaven and earth stand aghast at 
the sight. The rest of the chapter (17-32) is a dirge 
over the Pharaoh and his army, who descend into 
Sheol to join Assyria and other oppressors of Israel. 

Prophecies of the Restoration, Chapters 33-48. 
With chapter ^^ begin the prophecies of the restora- 
tion, which continue to the end of the book. The 
report of the fall of Jerusalem filled the exiles with 
despair. They thought the end had surely come. 
Ezekiel steps forward and points out that a new era 
is about to dawn and a new Israel is about to arise. 
The prophecies of restoration deal with this new era 
and the new Israel. The first group is contained in 
chapters 33-39, which describe the manner in which 
Jehovah will restore his people to the promised land. 

Responsibilities of the Prophetic Office, Chapter 
33. The responsibilities of the prophetic office are 
again impressed upon Ezekiel (33. 1-9). Then he 
reaffirms his doctrine of individual responsibility 
(compare chapter 18) — the penitent sinner will be 
saved, while the backsliding saint must perish — to 
show that no one among the exiles need despair of 



THE PROPHET EZEKIEL 207 

the divine mercy, if only he will truly turn to Jehovah 
(10-20). The news of the fall of the holy city reaches 
the prophet (21, 22). He denounces the remnant 
left behind in Judah for its immoralities (23-29), and 
his fellow exiles, because they do not act according 
to his teaching (30-33). 

Advent of the Messianic King, Chapter 34. Chap- 
ter 34 announces the advent of the Messianic 
king. The former rulers of Israel have been evil 
shepherds who neglected the sheep (1-4) ; as a result 
the people suffered affliction and violence (5, 6). 
Therefore the evil shepherds will be removed (7-10), 
and Jehovah himself will shepherd the flock (11-22). 
As his representative he will give them a prince of 
the Davidic dynasty, under whose care the flock will 
live in permanent peace and prosperity (23-31). 

Contrast between the Destiny of Edom and that of 
Israel, Chapters 35, 36. The prophecy in chapter 35 
is directed against Edom. The Edomites were hostile 
to the Israelites throughout almost their entire history. 
At the time of Jerusalem's fall they expressed malicious 
joy over the distress of the Jews, and after the latter's 
deportation to Babylonia some of them took pos- 
session of part of the territory of Judah. For these 
expressions of hostility Edom will become a perpetual 
desolation. On the other hand, the mountains of 
Israel, now devastated and objects of reproach and 
derision, will again enjoy the blessing of Jehovah and 
swarm with inhabitants (36. 1-15); one of the best 
gifts will be spiritual regeneration (25-27). Jehovah 
will restore his favor not for Israel's sake, but for 
his own sake, that the nations may know that he is 
God (16-38). 



2o8 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

Restoration of Judah and Israel, and the Messianic 
Ruler, Chapter 37. Chapter 37. 1-14 portrays the 
revival of the people from the death of exile under 
the figure of the resurrection of an army of dry bones. 
Judah, however, will not be restored alone: Israel 
will have a share in the blessings of the future (15-24). 
Over both the ideal King David will rule (24, 25), 
while Jehovah himself will set up his sanctuary in 
their midst (26-28). 

Jehovah's Final Triumph over the Nations of the 
Earth, Chapters 38, 39. Jehovah's final triumph over 
the nations of the earth is portrayed in 38. 1 — 39. 20. 
Gog, of the land of Magog, musters his armies against 
Israel (38. 1-13). The attack is in accord with Jeho- 
vah's will, in order that he may sanctify himself 
(14-16). Though ordered by Jehovah, the attack of 
Gog will be the occasion of a terrible judgment upon 
him and his hosts, in which they will be completely 
annihilated (38. 17 — 39. 20). Then all the nations 
will know that Jehovah is God, and he will no more 
hide his face from his people (21-29). 

The Extent and Splendor of the New Sanctuary of 
Jehovah, Chapters 40-43. In chapters 33-39 Ezekiel 
expresses the conviction that the exiles will be re- 
stored to their former home; in chapters 40-48 he 
sets forth the constitution upon the basis of which 
the life of the restored community is to be organized. 

There is first a description of the new sanctuary 
where Jehovah will dwell in visible splendor (chapters 
40-43). In the beginning of the twenty-fifth year of 
his exile, that is, in 572, Ezekiel is carried in a vision 
to Jerusalem, where he sees a man with a measuring 
line, who serves as his interpreter (40. 1-4). He gives 



THE PROPHET EZEKIEL 209 

to the prophet a description of the outer court with 
its gates and chambers (5-27); from there they pass 
to the inner court with its gates and chambers (28-47). 
Then he describes the temple itself, the dimensions of 
its several parts, the porch, the tabernacle, the side 
chambers, the main building, etc., and its decorations 
(40. 48 — 41. 26). Afterward the two return to the 
outer court, where the man points out and describes 
the chambers located toward the north and toward 
the south, intended for the use of the priests (42. 1-14) ; 
and then he proceeds to measure the whole group of 
temple buildings (15-20). The new sanctuary of 
Jehovah having been completed, he can now resume 
his seat there. Nineteen years before Ezekiel saw 
the glory of Jehovah depart from the temple; now he 
reenters his house (43. 1-12). In the remaining 
verses are given the measurements of the altar of 
burnt offerings (13-17) and instructions concerning the 
sacrifices and ceremonies to be performed on the 
occasion of the dedication of the temple (18-27). 

Regulations concerning the Administration of the 
New Community, Chapters 44-46. The next section 
(chapters 44-46) contains various regulations concern- 
ing the ministers of the temple, the duties and revenues 
of the priests, the Levites, and the prince; also con- 
cerning the ritual to be observed. The purpose of 
all these regulations was to keep unimpaired the 
sanctity of the temple, and thus to retain the presence 
and favor of Jehovah. The eastern gate is to remain 
shut, because through it Jehovah entered the temple 
(44. 1-3). All foreigners are to be excluded from the 
temple service (4-9). The Levites who had been 
priests at the high places are to fill the inferior offices 



210 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

(10-14), and the priesthood is to be restricted to the 
sons of Zadok (15, 16). Various rules are laid down 
for the proper conduct of the priests, concerning 
their garments (17-20), the drinking of wine (21), 
marriage (22), their duties as teachers (23) and judges 
(24), contact with dead persons (25-27), and their 
revenues (28-31). A certain portion of the land is 
to be set apart as "an oblation unto Jehovah' - (45. 
1-3), to be used for the maintenance of priests, Levites, 
and the prince, and for the city (4-8). Fixed dues 
are to be paid to the prince, out of which he must 
provide the materials for the temple service (13-17). 
Correct measures and weights must be used in deter- 
mining these dues (9-12). Detailed instruction is 
given concerning various kinds of sacrifices and offer- 
ings, the offerings at the feasts (18-25), at the Sabbaths 
and the new moons (46. 1-11), voluntary offerings of 
the prince (12), and the daily burnt offering (13-15). 
The section closes w T ith two appendixes, the first 
(16-18) dealing with the rights of the prince to bestow 
gifts, the second (19-24) with the places set apart in 
the inner and outer courts for the cooking of offerings 
eaten by the priests and the people respectively. 

Disposition of the Tribes in the Holy Land, Chap- 
ters 47, 48. The closing chapters (47, 48) describe 
the boundaries of the holy land and a new disposition 
of the tribes in it. A stream issuing from beneath 
the temple will fertilize the desert parts of the land 
and sweeten the bitter waters of the Dead Sea (47. 
1-12). The boundaries of the holy land are clearly 
defined (13-20). The land is to be divided by lot 
among the tribes of Israel and certain strangers 
(21-23). The territory set apart for Jehovah is to 



THE PROPHET EZEKIEL 211 

be near the center; north of it are seven tribes: Dan, 
Asher, Naphtali, Manasseh, Ephraim, Reuben, and 
Judah (48. 1-7). The portion of Jehovah is divided 
among the priests, the Levites, the city, and the 
prince (8-22). The five tribes of Benjamin, Simeon, 
Issachar, Zebulon, and Gad are assigned to the territory 
south of Jehovah's portion (23-29). There will be 
twelve gates leading out of the city (30-34), whose 
name from that day shall be, "Jehovah is there' ' (35). 

ACTIVITY AND TEACHING OF EZEKIEL 

Significance of Ezekiel. The Book of Ezekiel is 
not as interesting and attractive as are some of the 
other prophetic books, nor is the person of Ezekiel 
as grand and majestic as are some of the other prophets 
of Israel. Nevertheless, Ezekiel did a work that was 
of the greatest importance to his day and generation, 
and whose influence continued to be felt throughout 
the succeeding centuries of Jewish religious history; 
and his book is by no means without lessons of per- 
manent value. In the words of Kraetzschmar, "If 
the remnant of Israel was not lost among the heathen 
after the destructive catastrophe of 587-586, but 
found the way in which alone its future lay, this is 
really due to the service rendered by Ezekiel. In a 
wonderful manner he suited his activity to the changed 
conditions." The more important aspects of his work 
are: 

1. Denunciation of Judah's Sins and Announce- 
ment of Doom. From the time of his call to the 
destruction of Jerusalem he devoted his energies 
almost exclusively to combating the false hopes of 
deliverance which were entertained by the Jews left 






si a PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

behind in Judah and by many in exile. These hopes 
were encouraged by certain false prophets, with whom 
both Jeremiah and Ezekiel came in conflict. As is 
quite natural, during this period his message was 
largely one of denunciation (chapters 1-24). 

2. Repentance the Condition of Restoration. The 
people must be made to feel that they have offended 
a holy God, and that they must bear the consequences 
of their sins. Before the prophet could hold out any 
hope of a return of the divine favor, he must lead the 
people to heartfelt repentance, to self-examination, 
contrition for past idolatries and sins, and an earnest 
desire henceforth to live a life acceptable in the sight 
of a holy God. Ezekiel, like Hosea, was firmly con- 
vinced that heartfelt repentance was a fundamental 
condition of the restoration of the divine favor.* " Re- 
turn ye, and turn yourselves from all your trans- 
gressions; so iniquity shall not be your ruin. Cast 
away from you all your transgressions, wherein ye 
have transgressed; and make you a new heart and a 
new spirit: for why will ye die, O house of Israel? 
For I have no pleasure in the death of him that dieth, 
saith the Lord Jehovah: wherefore turn yourselves, 
and live" (18. 30-32). 

3. Promises of Restoration. However, Ezekiel was 
not exclusively a messenger of doom. Denunciation 
might lead the people to see their own wretchedness 
and fill them with remorse for wrongdoing, but that 
in itself would not produce a change of life and char- 
acter. On the contrary, it might lead to apathy and 
despair. That many actually lost heart is made clear 
by passages like these: "Our transgressions and our 
sins are upon us, and we pine away in them ; how then 



THE PROPHET EZEKIEL 213 

can we live?" (33. 10,) and, "Our bones are dried 
up, and our hope is lost; we are clean cut off" (37. 11). 
These cries show that the consciences of the speakers 
had been touched, and that they were ready for a 
message of hope and encouragement. Other prophets 
had foretold a restoration, and Ezekiel sought to 
sustain the despairing exiles with the promise of the 
ultimate restoration of the divine favor to all who 
would truly seek Jehovah. Even in the first division 
of the book, which contains the denunciations of the 
years preceding the fall of Jerusalem, a few bright 
promises may be found (n. i6ff. ; 16. 6off. ; 17. 22-24; 
20. 40ft:. ; etc.); however, it is especially in the utter- 
ances originating in the years subsequent to the 
catastrophe of 586 that Ezekiel gives expression to 
his sublimest hopes. 

The following elements enter into the prophet's 
teaching concerning the future glory: 

(1) Judgments upon the Nations. The restoration 
of the exiles is to be preceded by judgments upon the 
nations outside of Israel (chapters 25-32, 38, 39). 
The redeemed and restored remnant is intended to be 
the nucleus of the new kingdom of God upon earth, 
which will be a kingdom of peace and righteousness. 
In the past the surrounding nations had harassed the 
people of Jehovah; the only way to prevent their 
doing so in the future was to destroy them, or at 
least to fill them with such awe that they would lack 
courage to make another attack. Besides, in the past 
contact with foreign nations had led to idolatry and 
sin; to assure permanent purity in the future, this 
temptation to apostasy must be removed. These two 
ends are to be accomplished by the judgments upon 



V 
*V1 



2i 4 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

the nations announced by Ezekiel. " These judg- 
ments," says Davidson, "will awaken the nations to 
the knowledge who the God of Israel is — they shall 
know that he is Jehovah; and they will insure that 
in the future his people shall not be troubled or led 
astray." Skinner calls attention to the other purpose 
of the judgments in these words: "The motive of the 
judgments announced is to prepare the way for the 
restoration of Israel, by removing the evil influences 
which had sprung from the people's contact with its 
heathen neighbors in the past (28. 24-26; 29. 16)." 

(2) Endowment of the Land with Extraordinary 
Fertility, The land of Israel, now in the possession 
of foreigners (36. 2), will be prepared for the reception 
of the exiles, on the one hand, by the expulsion of 
the present masters (36. 3-7); on the other, by its 
endowment with extraordinary fertility: "Ye shall 
shoot forth your branches, and yield your fruit to 
my people Israel; for they are at hand to come. For, 
behold, I am for you, and I will turn unto you, and 
ye shall be tilled and sown" (36. 8, 9, 29, 30, 34, 35). 

(3) A Spiritual Regeneration. The exiles will be 
prepared for the return to the promised land by 
moral and spiritual regeneration. "I will sprinkle 
clean water upon you, and ye shall be clean: from all 
your filthiness, and from all your idols, will I cleanse 
you. A new heart also will I give you, and a new 
spirit will I put within you; and I will take away 
the stony heart out of your flesh, and I will give you 
a heart of flesh. And I will put my Spirit within 
you, and cause you to walk in my statutes, and ye 
shall keep mine ordinances, and do them" (36. 25-27). 

(4) Restoration of the Exiles. The preparation 



THE PROPHET EZEKIEL 215 

completed, the exiles will be restored to the promised 
land, there to live forever in prosperity and in the 
fear of Jehovah (37. 1-14; compare 36. 8ff.). The 
restoration of the exiles is likened to a resurrection 
from the dead: "Behold, I will open your graves, and 
cause you to come up out of your graves, O my people ; 
and I will bring you into the land of Israel" (37. 12). 
Then the mountains of Israel will swarm with people, 
the cities will be inhabited, and the waste places will 
be rebuilt (36. 10). The northern kingdom will have 
a share in the blessings of the restoration, and north 
and south will be reunited (37. i5ff.). 

(5) The Messianic Ruler. In the past the people 
of Jehovah had suffered much from faithless and 
incompetent shepherds, and the present distress was 
due very largely to their neglectfulness (34. 16). In 
the new era all this will be changed, for Jehovah him- 
self will be the shepherd of his flock and supply all 
its needs (34. 11-22). As his earthly representative 
he will appoint over the united Israel and Judah a 
descendant of David: "I will set up one shepherd over 
them, and he shall feed them, even my servant David ; 
he shall feed them, and he shall be their shepherd. 
And I, Jehovah, will be their God, and my servant 
David prince among them; I, Jehovah, have spoken 

it" (34. 23, 24; 37. 22fL). 

(6) Return of Jehovah to the Regenerated People. 

The regenerated and restored nation will live in close 
fellowship with Jehovah forever. The sins of Jeru- 
salem compelled him to leave the temple and the 
city, and give them up to destruction (chapters 10, 11) ; 
but in the age of restoration the sanctuary will be 
rebuilt, Jehovah will reenter it and establish an eternal 




216 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

covenant of peace with his people. "Moreover I 
will make a covenant of peace with them; it shall be 
an everlasting covenant with them; and I will place 
them, and multiply them, and will set my sanctuary 
in the midst of them for evermore. My tabernacle 
also shall be with them, and I will be their God, and 
they shall be my people" (37. 26, 27 ; compare 43. 1-12). 
4. The Organization of the Restored Community. 
Ezekiel was not content with predicting the restora- 
tion and the changes accompanying it; he put his 
convictions and ideals into concrete form in chapters 
40-48. The prophet must have seen that the efforts 
of the earlier prophets had proved more or less of a 
failure; they had been unable to avert the destruction 
of the nation, and their teaching had not brought 
about the moral and spiritual transformation upon 
which they insisted. Ezekiel saw the cause of the 
failure in the inability of the common people to grasp 
the abstract teaching of the prophets and apply it to 
the daily life. He sought to remove the difficulty 
and secure purity and righteousness in the life of 
the individual and of the whole community by mapping 
out a scheme for the establishment of a theocracy 
in the promised land. "The unique significance of 
that remarkable creation lies in the fact that under 
the form of a Messianic prophecy it presents the 
scheme of a politico-religious constitution, in which 
the fundamental idea of holiness is applied to the 
regulation of every part of the national life. It is 
a picture of the kingdom of God in its final and per- 
fect state as this prophet was led to conceive it." 
The underlying idea was the holiness of Jehovah and 
the conviction that only as this holiness was reflected 



THE PROPHET EZEKIEL 217 

in the life of the people was real and permanent fellow- 
ship between Jehovah and Israel possible. 
Fundamental Ideas Underlying EzekiePs Teaching. 

It remains now to point out some of the fundamental 
ideas underlying Ezekiel's teaching. We have already 
seen that many of the truths proclaimed by him are 
identical with those taught by the earlier prophets, 
but there are some truths, or aspects of truths, that 
are peculiar to him, or receive special emphasis from 
him. 

(1) The Glory of Jehovah. Of primary interest 
and importance is Ezekiel's conception of the nature 
and character of Jehovah. Fundamental in his 
thought of Jehovah is what he calls the glory of Jeho- 
vah. The idea expressed in this phrase is similar to 
that suggested by the song of the seraphim in Isaiah's 
vision, "The whole earth is full of his glory"; that is, 
evidences of the glorious manifestations of Jehovah in 
nature and history may be seen on every hand. The 
glory of Jehovah is described especially in the visions 
recorded in chapters 1, 10, 43. In all these passages 
the phrase suggests the glorious majesty and power, 
the universal supremacy of the God of Israel, which 
he desires to manifest continually in his dealings 
with men. The divine glory was so overpowering 
that at the sight of it the prophet fell upon his face 
(1. 28; 3. 23), and this he considers the proper atti- 
tude in the presence of Jehovah. 

(2) The Name of Jehovah. Similar in meaning is 
the phrase "the name of Jehovah." The glory of 
Jehovah denotes the glorious manifestations of Jeho- 
vah in nature and especially in history; the name of 
Jehovah is that side of his nature that can be revealed 



218 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

to man, or the sum of his attributes as he has revealed 
them. All the dealings of Jehovah with Israel, says 
Ezekiel, are for his name's sake; that is, for the pur- 
pose of revealing his true nature and character. The 
Israelites rebelled against Jehovah in Egypt; never- 
theless, for his name's sake he was merciful and brought 
them out of the land of bondage (20. 8, 9; compare 
verses 14, 22). Had he given them up to destruction, 
his name would have been profaned among the na- 
tions; for to them any disaster that befell his people 
would have been an indication of his weakness and 
inability to protect them, and this misconception 
might have caused them to mock him. To prevent 
this he delivered Israel, though it deserved otherwise. 
In the same manner, the restoration in the future is 
not due to any merit on the part of the exiles, but 
again to the desire of Jehovah to make himself known 
in his true nature and character to Israel and to the 
nations (36. 22, 23). 

(3) The Holiness of Jehovah. In several passages 
Ezekiel states that by a certain act Jehovah will 
"sanctify himself" or "show himself holy." With 
Ezekiel, as with Isaiah, the holiness of Jehovah de- 
notes not so much a particular attribute as his whole 
essential Godhead, though the prophet never loses 
sight of the moral aspect of the divine holiness. "Holy 
as applied to Jehovah is an expression that in some 
way describes him as God, either generally or on any 
particular side of his nature, the manifestation or 
thought of which impresses men with the sense of his 
Godhead." It is seen, then, that the statement that 
Jehovah will show himself holy or sanctify himself 
means simply that he will show himself to be the 



THE PROPHET EZEKIEL 219 

only true God. The actions of his people and his 
dealings with them in the past may have left some 
doubts on this point in the minds of the nations, but 
his future treatment of Israel and of the nations will 
open the latter' s eyes and convince them that he 
alone is God (20. 41; 28. 22, 25; 36. 23; 38. 16, 23). 

Moral Freedom and Individual Responsibility. 
Ezekiel emphasizes and expands the doctrine of the 
freedom and responsibility of the individual soul be- 
fore God, which was first taught by Jeremiah. There 
were, as in the days of Jeremiah, those who com- 
plained that they were suffering for the sins of their 
fathers (18. 2, 19). This is not true, says Ezekiel: 
"The soul that sinneth, it shall die: the son shall not 
bear the iniquity of the father, neither shall the father 
bear the iniquity of the son; the righteousness of the 
righteous shall be upon him, and the wickedness of 
the wicked shall be upon him" (18. 20). The prophet 
makes it equally clear that a person does not lie under 
the ban of his own previous life (18. 21-32). His 
moral freedom raises him above both these influences. 
This truth, that religion was an individual affair, that 
it depended upon the relation of the individual to his 
God, was of the greatest importance in the days of 
Ezekiel, when many felt that the destruction of the 
holy city and the temple involved the loss of true 
religion. 

Israel's Sinfulness at the Beginning of its History. 
Ezekiel differs from the earlier prophets in his view 
of Israel's history. Hosea, Isaiah, and Jeremiah 
taught that Israel was pure in the beginning; only 
after the exodus from Egypt did the nation apostatize 
from Jehovah. Ezekiel, on the other hand, traces 



?/ 



22o PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

the rebellion of Israel back to Egypt (20. 8; 23. 3). 
Even then the people deserved the divine wrath, and 
Jehovah brought them out of bondage only in order 
that his name might not be profaned among the 
nations (20. 9). 

Ezekiel's Estimate of the Externals of Religion. 
Perhaps in nothing is the contrast between Ezekiel 
and the earlier prophets more clearly marked than in 
his attitude toward the ritual. All the preexilic 
prophets insist that the ritual is not an essential 
element of true religion (Amos 5. 21-25; Hos. 6. 6; 
Isa. 1. 11-15; Mic. 6. 6-8; Jer. 3. 16, 17). Ezekiel, 
on the other hand, devotes considerable space to a 
detailed program, describing the ecclesiastical organi- 
zation of the community after the return from exile; 
and in these provisions much stress is laid upon many 
things that earlier prophets considered of little or no 
consequence. This emphasis of the externals of 
religion has led to the charge that Ezekiel "trans- 
formed the ideals of the prophets into laws and dogmas, 
and destroyed spiritually free and moral religion." 
This sweeping charge is not warranted. In the first 
place, Ezekiel had every reason for believing that his 
age required the expression of religious ideals in 
external, concrete forms. The great mass of people 
needed the temple, the sacrificial system, and other 
institutions as means of communion with God; and it 
is exceedingly doubtful if the religion of Jehovah 
could have survived without them. That later genera- 
tions exaggerated the importance of externals until 
finally the spirit was altogether lost sight of was not 
the fault of Ezekiel. In the second place, the ritual 
does by no means exhaust the religious interests of 



THE PROPHET EZEKIEL 221 

the prophet. Again and again he insists that a pure 
and righteous life is an essential part of true religion 
(chapters 3, 18, 33). Besides, it must be borne in 
mind that the provisions in chapters 40-48 are in- 
tended for a regenerated people; they are meant to 
aid a regenerated community to give proper expression 
to its devotion to Jehovah, "In interpreting the mind 
of the man who sketched this priestly legislation it is 
unfair to ignore those profound and noble utterances 
touching the necessity of the new heart (18. 31 ,'36. 26) 
and the new spirit (11. 19), utterances which have the 
ring of some of the greatest words of Jeremiah.' ' 



CHAPTER X 
ISAIAH, Chapters Forty to Sixty-six 

CONDITIONS IN BABYLONIA FROM THE CLOSE OF EZEKIEL'S 
ACTIVITY TO THE CAPTURE OF BABYLON BY CYRUS 

Successors of Nebuchadnezzar. The great Nebu- 
chadnezzar continued to reign until 562. During his 
lifetime the splendor of Babylon endured, but after 
his death the empire which he had built up quickly 
went to pieces. His son Amel-Marduk, the biblical 
Evil-merodach (2 Kings 25. 27), was slain at the end 
of two years at the instigation of the priesthood, and 
his brother-in-law, Nergal-shar-usur, was made king. 
After a reign of about three years he was succeeded 
by his son Labashi-Marduk, who, however, was almost 
immediately assassinated. Nabonidus, a native Baby- 
lonian, and hence, perhaps, the leader of a reaction 
against the Chaldeans, who had furnished the kings 
since the days of Nabopolassar, became the last king 
of Babylon about 555. He stood under the influence 
of the priesthood, and spent much time in rebuilding 
and beautifying temples. These enterprises, though 
commendable in themselves, did nothing for the 
defense of the empire and caused him to lose the 
favor of the military party, and in the end even the 
priests turned against him. 

Attitude of the Scythians. The Scythians, with 
singular fidelity, kept their treaty with Babylon as 
long as the dynasty of Nebuchadnezzar was on the 
throne, but when it was overthrown they felt them- 



ISAIAH, FORTY TO SIXTY-SIX 223 

selves absolved from their obligations and began to 
extend their borders beyond the old treaty limits, 
established after the fall of Nineveh. They entered 
Mesopotamia, where they occupied the city of Haran, 
and Babylonia would have fallen before them had there 
not appeared a new conqueror upon the scene. 

Conquests of Cyrus. Cyrus, king of Anshan, was 
his name. Anshan was a small district in Elam, but 
when Cyrus once entered upon his wars of conquest 
nothing seemed able to stop him. The powerful 
Scythians, the Medes, Persia, and Croesus, the famed 
king of Lydia, were subdued in rapid succession. 
Finally, in 538, the main body of the army of Cyrus, 
under the leadership of his general Ugbaru, advanced 
against Babylon. The city surrendered without a 
struggle, and Nabonidus was taken prisoner. In 
October of the same year Cyrus himself entered the 
city, where he was welcomed as a deliverer. The 
proud empire of Nebuchadnezzar was at an end. 

DATE OF ISAIAH 40-66 

Historical Background of Isa. 40-66. It is uni- 
versally admitted that Isa. 4off. reflect the conditions 
of the Babylonian exile: (1) Jerusalem and the temple 
are in ruins (44. 26, 28). (2) The time of punishment 
is almost over (40. 2) and the time of redemption is 
at hand (40. off.; 46. 13). (3) Babylon is named as 
the oppressor, and it is stated that her dominion 
will soon cease (43. 14; 46. iff.). (4) Cyrus is named 
as the executioner of judgment upon Babylon and 
the deliverer of the exiles (44. 28; 45. 1), and he is 
represented as having already achieved some of his 
victories (41. 2, 25; 45. 1-3). (5) Appeal is made 
to ancient prophecies predicting the events taking 



224 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

place in the author's days (41. 26; 42. 9; 44. 8; 45. 
21; etc.). These prophecies, which have to do chiefly 
with the restoration from exile, were delivered by the 
preexilic prophets. 

Date of the Chapters. But while it is universally 
admitted that " these chapters are unquestionably 
written from the standpoint of the Babylonian exile," 
there is a difference of opinion as to whether the 
author actually lived at that time and wrote out of 
his own historical environment, or whether Isaiah, 
the son of Amoz, to whom the prophecies in the 
earlier part of the book are assigned, was transported 
by the spirit to the period of the exile, about one 
hundred and fifty years from his own day, and ad- 
dressed the utterances to the exiles whom he saw be- 
fore him not in reality, but only in the spirit. The 
majority of modern scholars hold that the author 
lived among the exiles, and so, that he was not the 
eighth century Isaiah. "It was the office of the prophet 
of Israel to address himself to the needs of his own 
age, to announce to his contemporaries the judg- 
ments or consolations which arose out of the circum- 
stances of their own time, to interpret for them their 
own history. To base a promise upon a condition of 
things not yet existent, and without any point of 
contact with the circumstances or situation of those 
to whom it is addressed, is alien to the genius of 
prophecy.* ' 

To be Interpreted from the Standpoint of the Exile. 
The determination of the authorship of the chapters 
is of interest and importance, but after all is of little 
consequence for our study, since all are agreed that 
the utterances reflect the exile and that, therefore, 



ISAIAH, FORTY TO SIXTY-SIX 225 

they must be interpreted from the standpoint of the 
exile. The prophecy opens at some date between 
549 and 538. The conquest of Babylon is still in the 
future; on the other hand, Cyrus is represented as 
already upon the scene of action, about to strike 
a blow against Babylon. It seems, therefore, that 
the standpoint of the author, whoever he may be, 
is that of about 545 B. C. This is certainly true of 
the earlier chapters of the section. There are those, 
however, who believe that the section contains some 
utterances that come from a much later period. 

CONTENTS OF ISAIAH 40-66 

The Restoration of the Exiles, Chapters 40-48. 

It has become customary to divide the chapters into 
three nearly equal sections, chapters 40-48, 49-55, 
56-66. The theme of the first division (chapters 40-48) 
is the deliverance and restoration of the exiles through 
the instrumentality of Cyrus. To give emphasis to 
his promises the prophet calls attention again and 
again to the mighty power of Jehovah, which enables 
him to carry out his purpose in the face of all obstacles. 
The Restoration of the Exiles is at Hand, 40. 
1— II. Chapter 40. 1-11, a passage of great beauty, 
may be considered the prologue, in which the prophet 
sets forth the theme of the entire section. The time 
of Israel's punishment is almost over, and the time 
of redemption is at hand; therefore a message of 
comfort and hope is in order (1, 2). Already the 
prophet hears a voice summoning unseen agencies 
to prepare a way for Jehovah in the desert (3-5). 
Another voice commands the prophet to proclaim the 
ground of his conviction that deliverance is at hand: 



226 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

"The word of our God shall stand forever' ' (6-8). 
Prompted by his conviction, the prophet calls upon 
messengers to announce to Judah and Jerusalem that 
Jehovah is about to bring back the redeemed people 
(9-1 1). 

The Incomparable Greatness of Jehovah, 40. 
12-31. The announcement may be startling, but 
the exiles must remember who makes the promise, 
Jehovah, the creator and ruler of heaven and earth. 
In the rest of chapter 40 the prophet enforces his 
message of comfort by picturing the incomparable 
greatness of Jehovah; no finite mind can comprehend 
him, no human conception can express him, therefore 
idolatry is absurd (12-26). Whoever relies upon 
Jehovah, whose manifestations may be observed in 
nature and history, shall not be disappointed (27-31). 

Cyrus, the Instrument of Jehovah, to Free Israel, 
Chapter 41. The signs of the times point to an ap- 
proaching deliverance. Jehovah propounds to an 
assembly of the nations the question, Who has raised 
up the great conqueror from the east? (41. i-4a.) 
This conqueror is Cyrus, who has already entered 
upon his career of triumph. It is no one but Jehovah, 
who has chosen Cyrus to carry out his purpose (4D-7). 
The nations may well tremble; but in the midst of 
the convulsions Israel, the chosen servant, has nothing 
to fear. Jehovah is doing all this that his servant 
may be delivered and fulfill his divinely appointed 
mission (8-20). Verse 21 is the continuation of verse 
7. Jehovah, not the heathen idols, has raised up 
Cyrus, as is shown by the fact that he alone foresaw 
and predicted the event (21-29). 

Jehovah's Continued Care for Israel His Servant, 



ISAIAH, FORTY TO SIXTY-SIX 227 

42. i — 43. 7. Israel is the chosen servant of 
Jehovah who is to teach true religion to the world 
(1-4), and Jehovah promises that he will aid him in 
the carrying out of this mission (5-9). Assured of 
Jehovah's speedy triumph the prophet breaks into a 
song of thanksgiving, in which he calls upon the 
whole earth to rejoice (10-12), because Jehovah is 
about to redeem his people (13-17). Though Israel 
has a lofty mission, in the past it has failed to re- 
spond to the divine leadings; therefore the fierceness 
of the divine wrath has been poured upon it (18-25); 
but the time of punishment is past, and Jehovah is 
about to restore his people (43. 1-7). 

Israel's Glorious Restoration an Act of Mercy, 

43. 8 — 44. 5. The words of Jehovah are worthy of 
attention, for the fulfillment, in the present history 
of Israel, of earlier prophetic utterances proves him 
to be the only true God (43. 8-13). Israel is about 
to be delivered from Babylon, and the new deliverance 
will be more wonderful than the ancient deliverance 
from Egypt (14-21). This is not due to any merit 
on Israel's part, for it has grievously sinned against 
Jehovah (22-24), but is an act of free grace (25-28). 
In the new era of splendor other nations will be anxious 
to join themselves to his people (44. 1-5). 

Jehovah, who alone is God, will Surely Fulfill 
his Promises, 44. 6 — 45. 25. In 44. 6-& the argument 
from the fulfillment of prophecy is appealed to once 
more, to prove that Jehovah alone is God. Then 
the prophet exposes with much sarcasm the folly of 
idolatry (9-20). He exhorts Israel to remember that 
Jehovah is its redeemer (21-23) J & * s ne wno nas com - 
missioned Cyrus to deliver the exiles and to rebuild 



228 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

Jerusalem and the temple (44. 24 — 45. 8). Those 
exiles who murmur because Jehovah has chosen a 
foreigner to be his anointed are reminded that Jehovah 
is supreme and can choose whom he will (9-13). The 
ultimate object of the call of Cyrus is to bring, through 
the redemption of the exiles, a knowledge of the true 
God to other nations (14-17). The promises of Jehovah 
will surely be fulfilled (18-25). 

The Impending Doom of Babylon, Chapters 
46, 47. The impotence of the Babylonian gods 
(46. 1, 2) is contrasted with the mighty power 
of Jehovah (3-7). Let Israel remember what he has 
done in the past and trust him for the future (8-12). 
Chapter 47 contains a taunt-song over the doomed 
city. Jehovah will depose Babylon from her position 
of luxury and ease (1-4). She will be displaced as 
the mistress of the kingdoms, because she has shown 
no mercy to Israel (5-7). Her self-confidence will 
avail nothing, for suddenly destruction will come upon 
her (8-1 1). Her sorceries and other resources will 
utterly fail in the day of calamity (12-15). 

Jehovah's Manifestations in Israel's Past History 
a Guarantee of Speedy Restoration, Chapter 48. 
Chapter 48 is addressed to the exiles. If they would 
look over their past — especially, if they would study 
past predictions and their fulfillment — they would see 
the divine hand in the events of their history (i-n). 
The imminent fall of Babylon, which will result in 
the release of the exiles, is the supreme evidence of 
Jehovah's interest in his people (12-16). Jehovah 
bewails the past stubbornness of Israel (17-19), but 
the time of deliverance is at hand, therefore let the 
exiles flee from the land of bondage (20-22). 



ISAIAH, FORTY TO SIXTY-SIX 229 

The Mission of the Servant of Jehovah and the 
Glorification of Zion, Chapters 49-55. The second 
section (chapters 49-55) deals with the mission of the 
servant of Jehovah and the glorification of Zion. 
Several lines of thought, prominent in chapters 40-48, 
here disappear, probably because the prophet feels 
that they have been developed at sufficient length 
and that he has established his case beyond con- 
troversy. Among the omitted features are the ref- 
erences to Cyrus, the predictions of the fall of Babylon, 
the appeal to the fulfillment of prophecy, the con- 
demnation of idolatry, and the arguments to prove the 
sole deity of Jehovah. The prophet is concerned more 
with the moral and spiritual preparation of the exiles 
for the restoration and with the future exaltation of 
the redeemed remnant. The figure of the servant 
of Jehovah occupies a prominent place. 

The Servant of Jehovah and Jehovah's Readiness 
to Aid Him, 49. 1 — 50. 3. In 49. 1 the servant of 
Jehovah is introduced. He describes the mission 
intrusted to him by Jehovah and the discouraging 
experiences of the past (1-4). His task is great, for 
both Jews and Gentiles are to be saved through him 
(5-13). The complaint of the despondent exiles, that 
Jehovah has forsaken them, is unwarranted; he is 
still interested in them and will surely restore them 
(14-26). Their present distress is due not to his 
lack of interest but to their sins; however, he will 
soon manifest his power in their behalf (50. 1-3). 

The Servant of Jehovah — his present Distress 
and Imminent Deliverance, 50. 4 — 52. 12. In 50. 
4-9 the servant speaks again, describing the manner 
in which he does the work assigned to him and the 



2 3 o PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

difficulties he must overcome; nevertheless, he is con- 
fident that Jehovah will help him. The prophet 
exhorts his contemporaries to imitate the faith of the 
servant (10), and warns the ungodly that their evil 
schemes will result in their own undoing (n). 

Jehovah has called Israel to be his servant, hence 
he cannot forsake him. The glorious salvation is 
near (51. 1-8); the deliverances of the past are a 
guarantee that Jehovah will keep his promise now 
(9-1 1); let Israel but trust in Jehovah and not be 
afraid of man (12-16). The present distress of Jeru- 
salem is great ; she has drunk deep of the cup of Jeho- 
vah's wrath (17-20), but he is about to take it from 
her and place it in the hands of her oppressors (21-23). 
Therefore let Zion lay aside her soiled raiment and 
put on festal garments (52. 1, 2), for Jehovah will 
restore his people, in order to save his name from 
blasphemy (3-6). Already the speaker beholds upon 
the mountains of Judah the messengers who bear the 
glad tidings of Israel's deliverance, and he hears the 
watchmen announcing the good news (7-10) ; there- 
fore once more he summons the exiles to depart from 
the land of their captivity (11, 12). 

The Servant of Jehovah — his Exaltation after a 
Period of Deepest Humiliation, 52. 13—53- 12. The 
subject of 52. 13 — 53. 12 is again the servant of 
Jehovah, whose exaltation after a period of deep- 
est humiliation is portrayed. The servant, whose 
extreme sufferings have caused astonishment, is 
to be highly exalted, so that nations tremble and 
kings are put to shame (52. 13-15). Earlier state- 
ments concerning the servant were not believed; he 
was despised and rejected (53. 1-3). At last the 



ISAIAH, FORTY TO SIXTY-SIX 231 

speakers' eyes were opened and they saw that he 
was suffering in their behalf (4-6). Patiently he 
suffered, and was finally taken away and buried 
among evildoers (7-9). Jehovah has purposed that 
he should be exalted through suffering; surrounded by 
his seed he will occupy a seat among the mighty (10-12). 

Zion's Future Splendor, Chapter 54. Zion, now bar- 
ren and desolate, will have many children, and her 
borders will be extended to accommodate all (1-3). 
The shame of her youth and the reproach of her 
widowhood are to be blotted out (4-6). Her rejection 
was only temporary, but her restoration will be final 
and as permanent as the covenant with Noah (7-10). 
Jerusalem is to be rebuilt in magnificence and splendor, 
and her inhabitants will live in peace forever (11-17). 

The Promised Blessings Intended for All, Chapter 
55. These promises are intended for all; therefore 
let all partake of the blessings so freely offered (55. 
1-5). The summons is urgent, for Jehovah is about 
to manifest himself (6, 7). This statement is true, 
though his thoughts and purposes are beyond the 
understanding of men (8, 9). Already the word of 
redemption has gone forth, and it will not return 
without accomplishing its purpose (10, 11); the deliv- 
erance from exile is at hand, when all will be joy 
and felicity (12, 13). 

The Future Blessedness of the True Israel and 
the Doom of the Apostates, Chapters 56-66. The 
third section (chapters 56-66), which contrasts the 
future blessedness of the true Israel with the doom 
of the apostates, is less homogeneous than the other 
two sections. "In passing from chapter 55 to chapter 
56," says Skinner, "the reader is at once sensible of 



232 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

a change of manner and circumstance, which becomes 
still more manifest as he proceeds." 

All who Keep the Law of Jehovah to Enjoy 
Fellowship with Jehovah, Chapters 56, 57. Chapter 
56 begins with a blessing upon all who keep the law 
of Jehovah, especially upon those who keep the Sab- 
bath holy (1, 2). Even proselytes and eunuchs who 
observe the Sabbath are permitted to participate in 
the temple worship, for Jehovah's house shall be 
called "a house of prayer for all peoples" (3-8). There 
follows a section of an entirely different character 
(56. 9 — 57. 10), in which the prophet turns from the 
glories of the future to denounce the sins of his con- 
temporaries. It opens with a denunciation of the 
faithless shepherds who neglected their flock Israel 
and allowed it to perish (56. 9 — 57. 2). The succeeding 
verses are directed against idolatries of various forms 
(3-10). Such conduct means certain doom (n-i3a); 
repentance offers the only hope of escape, for Jehovah 
alone can revive and restore them (130-21). 

The Fast Acceptable to Jehovah, Chapter 58. 
The people complain that Jehovah has failed to re- 
ward their painstaking observance of the fast days 
(58. 1 -3 a); to which the prophet replies that fasting 
without a righteous life is of no value in the sight 
of Jehovah (3D-5). The fast in which he delights 
consists in deeds of philanthropy, unselfishness, gen- 
erosity, loving-kindness. If they practice these, ob- 
serve the Sabbath, and do the will of Jehovah in 
other respects, he will show them his favor and exalt 
them forever (6-14). 

Sinfulness the Cause of the Present Distress, 
Chapter 59. It is not the impotence of Jehovah, but 



ISAIAH, FORTY TO SIXTY-SIX 233 

the sinfulness of the people, that has caused their 
salvation to be withheld (59. 1-8). The prophet, 
putting himself in the place of the people, pictures 
their hopeless condition and vain endeavor to find 
relief (9-1 1), and makes a confession of the national 
wickedness that has caused the present distress (12- 
15a). Though the present is so dark, the prophet is 
convinced that some day Jehovah will interfere, to 
execute vengeance upon his adversaries and to re- 
deem the penitent Zion (150-21). 

Future Glory of the City of Jerusalem, Chapters 
60-62. When this redemption is wrought the city 
of Jerusalem will be glorious. Darkness may cover 
the earth, but Jerusalem will be bright and the nations 
of the earth will come to her light (60. 1-3). Her 
exiled children will be restored, and the wealth of 
the nations will come unto her (4-9). Then she will 
become the mistress of the nations; they will build 
her walls, kings will serve her, and treasures untold 
will be brought for the beautifying of Jehovah's 
sanctuary (10-14). Her inhabitants will live forever 
in prosperity and peace, in righteousness and light 
(15-22). The promise of the future glory of Zion is 
continued in chapter 61. The prophet is conscious 
of a sublime mission, and his labor will not be in 
vain (1-3). The waste places will be rebuilt (4), 
Israel will become the priestly mediator between the 
nations and Jehovah (5, 6), and receive double com- 
pensation for past sufferings (7-9). The prophet, as 
the mouthpiece of the redeemed community, rejoices 
in the transformation wrought (10, 11). He also 
declares that he will continue to labor on Zion's be- 
half until her redemption is complete (62. 1-5). He 



234 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

beholds watchmen upon the wall who remind Jehovah 
of his promises to Zion (6, 7), which he will surely 
keep (8, 9). The time of deliverance is at hand, and 
it is time to prepare the way for the return of the 
exiles (10-12). 

Doom of Edom; Prayer for a Renewal of the 
Divine Favor, Chapters 63, 64. While Zion is 
exalted, her enemies, especially Edom, are trodden 
down (63. 1-6). There follows, in 63. 7 — 64. 12, a 
prayer of the people for the renewal of Jehovah's 
former loving-kindness. It opens with a commemora- 
tion of Jehovah's goodness to the faithful nation in 
its youth (7-9). True, Israel has rebelled, but it still 
remembers the divine mercy (10-14). O that Jehovah 
would return to his people (15-19). This petition 
is continued in chapter 64. O that he would repeat 
the wonderful manifestations of the past (1-3), for 
his withdrawal has increased the nation's sin and 
distress (4-7). The prayer closes with an appeal to 
the divine fatherhood and an earnest plea that Jehovah 
will restore his favor to his children (8-12). 

The Faithful and the Rebellious, Chapter 65. In 
chapter 65, which seems to be intended for a reply 
to the prayer, a distinction is made between Jehovah's 
faithful servants and the rebellious. Jehovah has 
always been accessible to his people, but they have 
rebelled against him, and now he will destroy the 
evildoers (1-7). A faithful remnant will be preserved 
and enjoy the divine blessing (8-10) ; on the other 
hand, those that forsake Jehovah will be cut off (1 1, 12). 
In verse 13 the rebellious are addressed: While Jeho- 
vah's true servants will enjoy the presence and favor 
of their God, the rebellious will be completely anni- 



ISAIAH, FORTY TO SIXTY-SIX 235 

hilated (13-16). The various blessings in store for 
the former are enumerated in verses 17-25. 

Jehovah to Reward the Faithful, to Destroy the 
Wicked, Chapter 66. In view of the anticipated 
restoration of the temple the prophet reminds the 
people, in chapter 66, that no earthly dwelling place 
is adequate to contain the majesty of Jehovah (1, 2), 
nor can an insincere worship win his favor (3, 4). 
The faithless will be destroyed, while the faithful in 
Zion will be redeemed (5-9). Peace and joy will 
reign in the new Jerusalem, when Jehovah will comfort 
those who now mourn (10-14). Verse 15 returns to 
the judgment upon the evildoers (15-17). The judg- 
ment is followed by a glorious restoration, when the 
faithful will be exalted forever, while the punishment 
of the impenitent rebels will endure forever (18-24). 

THE TEACHING OF ISAIAH 40-66 

The Book of Consolation. "In many respects," 
says Cornill, "this Second or Deutero- Isaiah must 
be accounted the most brilliant jewel of prophetic 
literature. In him are gathered together as in a 
focus all the great and noble meditations of the proph- 
ecy which preceded him, and he reflects them with 
the most gorgeous refraction, and with the most 
beauteous play of light and color." The essential 
characteristic of the message of the chapters is ex- 
pressed in the opening words, "Comfort ye, comfort 
ye my people, saith your God. Speak ye comfortably 
to Jerusalem; and cry unto her, that her warfare is 
accomplished, that her iniquity is pardoned, that she 
hath received of Jehovah's hand double for all her 
sins." The all-pervading note is consolation; hence 
the chapters have been styled the "Book of Consola- 



■■/ 



236 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

tion." The theme of the earlier prophets was primarily 
judgment, but they saw a ray of light beyond the 
darkness and gloom. These chapters assume that 
the judgment has fallen, the exile is a reality, the 
poor Jews are oppressed and pining away in their 
grief; but the author beholds the end of the captivity 
and oppression, and he seeks to revive the drooping 
spirits with this message of hope and salvation. 

The Mission of the Redeemed Israel. To the 
prophet Israel's release from exile means something 
more than a restoration to the promised land. It is 
only one step in the carrying out of God's redemptive 
purpose for the whole human race. The deliverance 
of Israel will be a revelation of the sole deity of Jehovah, 
and will open the eyes of the surrounding nations, 
though it will not succeed in leading all of them to 
a complete knowledge of the true God. Therefore, 
when Israel is restored to its former home and to 
intimate fellowship with Jehovah, it will take up the 
work that still remains to be done and become the 
minister of salvation to the rest of mankind, as Jehovah 
had ordained in the beginning. 

The Sole Deity of Jehovah. The prophet never 
wearies of emphasizing the sole deity of Jehovah. This 
was not a new truth, for from the time of Amos on it 
had been taught in one way or another. But there 
was need of stating this truth in a more forceful and 
comprehensive way. In the thought of the ancients 
the fortunes of a deity were closely bound up with 
the fortunes of his worshipers. The prosperity and 
success of the worshipers were an indication of the 
power and supremacy of their God; on the other 
hand, their misfortunes and defeat were an evidence of 



ISAIAH, FORTY TO SIXTY-SIX 237 

his impotence. Israel had trusted in Jehovah, Baby- 
lonia in Bel, Marduk, Nebo, and its other numerous 
deities; Israel had been blotted out as a nation, and 
the survivors had been carried into exile; Babylonia 
had triumphed and become the mistress of the world. 
The great mass of common people would draw but 
one inference from this, namely, that the gods of 
Babylonia were stronger than the God of Israel; and 
those who did not go so far would, at least, look with 
suspicion upon their God. A serious situation indeed! 
Was it possible to overcome this skepticism and unbe- 
lief? On the answer to this question depended, hu- 
manly speaking, the fate of true religion. Our prophet 
had at least a glimpse of the far-reaching issues involved 
and, especially in the earlier portion of the book, he 
insists again and again on the sole deity of Jehovah, 
while he points out with equal force and persistency 
the nothingness of the idols. The most vivid por- 
trayal of the folly of idolatry is found in 44. 8-20; 
but compare also 40. 18-20 ; 41. 29 ; 43. g&. ; etc. "The 
teaching of the prophet on this theme amounts to a 
sustained polemic, the more impassioned, perhaps, be- 
cause in Babylon idolatry was practiced on such an 
imposing scale, and must have produced on the exiled 
Jews so overwhelming an impression" (46. 1, 2). A 
strong argument for the sole deity of Jehovah is 
drawn from the fulfillment of prophecies delivered in 
former days (41. 21-26; 42. 8, 9; 43. 9-13; 44. 8; 45. ^ 
20, 21; 46. 9). 

The Divine Omnipotence and Supremacy. Closely 
connected with the sole deity of Jehovah is his su- 
premacy or omnipotence; indeed, the latter is simply 
one aspect of the former, for if Jehovah alone is God, 



238 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

it naturally follows that he is all-powerful and su- 
preme. Evidences of the divine power and supremacy 
may be seen on every hand: (i) In creation and the 
present course of nature: "Lift up your eyes on high, 
and see who hath created these, that bringeth out 
their host by number; he calleth them all by name; 
by the greatness of his might, and for that he is strong 
in power, not one is lacking" (40. 26; compare verses 
12, 28). (2) In the affairs of men and nations: "It 
is he that sitteth above the circle of the earth, and 
the inhabitants therof are as grasshoppers; that 
stretcheth out the heavens as a curtain, and spreadeth 
them out as a tent to dwell in; that bringeth princes 
to nothing; that maketh the judges of the earth as 
vanity" (40. 22, 23). (3) In the past history of Israel: 
"I have declared, and I have saved, and I have showed; 
and there was no strange god among you: therefore 
ye are my witnesses, saith Jehovah, and I am God" 
(43. 12; compare 51. 2, gfi.). (4) In the events now 
taking place, especially in the conquests of Cyrus: 
"Who hath raised up one from the east, whom he 
calleth in righteousness to his foot? ... I have raised 
up one from the north, and he is come" (41. 2, 25; 
compare 44. 28; 45. 1-3). 

It is to emphasize more strongly the omnipotence 
and supremacy of Jehovah that the prophet institutes 
the comparisons between him and the impotent idols 
to which reference has been made. He also contrasts 
the omnipotence of Jehovah with the weakness of 
man: "All flesh is grass, and all the goodliness thereof 
is as the flower of the field" (40. 6). 

The omnipotence and supremacy of Jehovah are 
discussed by the prophet for a specific purpose, namely, 



ISAIAH, FORTY TO SIXTY-SIX 239 

to comfort the exiles who are now in distress and 
despair. The omnipotent God, who has chosen Israel 
as his servant, to carry out his universal redemptive 
purpose, will not forsake him in the present crisis. 
Already he has raised up Cyrus to perform his pleasure, 
that is, to bring deliverance to the exiles; already 
he is on his way to Babylon; the city will surely fall, 
and then Jehovah will gather the exiles and carry 
them safely through the desert to their former home 
(40. 3-5, 9-1 1 ; 43- 14). 

The Righteousness of Jehovah. In a general way it 
may be said that the author of these chapters con- 
ceives the righteousness of Jehovah to be that atti- 
tude or kind of manifestation which expresses the 
divine fidelity to the covenant relation between Israel 
and Jehovah. This righteousness finds expression in 
various ways: (1) In speech: "I, Jehovah, speak right- 
eousness, I declare things that are right" (45. 19). In 
exhorting the people to seek him Jehovah spoke right- 
eousness, for it was his purpose that he should be 
found; which was proper and right in view of the 
covenant established in the beginning. (2) In the 
deliverance of Israel. Whatever Jehovah has done, is 
doing, or will do for Israel, is in accord with the pur- 
pose embodied in the first covenant, that Israel should 
be the chosen people and carry out the redemptive 
purpose of God. He called Israel, his servant, in right- 
eousness (42. 6), he will uphold him by the right hand 
of his righteousness (41. 10); he has raised up Cyrus 
in righteousness (45. 13), and he will bring near his 
righteousness in the deliverance and restoration of Is- 
rael to Zion (46. 13; 56. 1). (3) In the salvation of 
mankind. The covenant with Israel implied more than 



240 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

that it should be a peculiar people; it implied that 
through Israel the knowledge of the true God should 
come to all mankind. Hence the determination that 
all men should submit to Jehovah is a manifestation of 
his righteousness: "By myself have I sworn, the word 
is gone forth from my mouth in righteousness, and 
shall not return, that unto me every knee shall bow, 
every tongue shall swear" (45. 23 ; compare 51. 5, 6, 8). 

The Holy One of Israel. The first part of the 
Book of Isaiah has much to say about the holiness 
of Jehovah. Isaiah is very fond of the title "the 
Holy One of Israel," to describe the relation of Jehovah 
to his people; indeed, he may have coined the term. 
Chapters 40 ff. show the same fondness for the title. 
It is "the Holy One of Israel" who will redeem and 
exalt the exiles: "Thy redeemer is the Holy One of 
Israel" (41. 14; compare 43. 14; 47. 4; 48. 17; 49. 7; 
54- 51 55- 5 5 60. 9, 14). The holiness of Jehovah is 
the motive of his righteousness. Because he is holy, 
that is, because he is truly God and endowed with 
the fullness of perfection, he must be true to the 
covenant relation established in the beginning. What- 
ever Israel may do or fail to do, his nature and char- 
acter demand that he do his share to make Israel in 
truth his own peculiar people, and through it bring 
the knowledge of himself to the whole human race. 

The Name and the Glor - of Jehovah. Two ideas 
very prominent in the Book of Ezekiel are also 
emphasized by the author of Isa. 40ft., namely, that 
Jehovah will redeem Israel "for his name's sake" and 
for the purpose of manifesting "his glory." With the 
former phrase the prophet, like Ezekiel, means that 
the redemptive work of Jehovah is not due to any 



ISAIAH, FORTY TO SIXTY-SIX 241 

merit on the part of the redeemed, but rather to the 
desire of Jehovah to prevent the nations from getting 
a false conception of him, and to make known to them 
his true nature and character (43. 25; 48. 9-1 1). In 
a similar manner the statement that Jehovah has 
done or will do a certain thing for his glory (40. 55 
43. 7; 59. 19; 60. 1, 2; 66. 18, 19) means that by the 
act he seeks to reveal his glorious majesty and power, 
his universal supremacy, that all men may learn to 
know him as the only true God. 

The Divine Purpose the Redemption of the Whole 
World. The prophet's view of Israel is determined by 
his conviction that the ultimate purpose of Jehovah is 
the redemption of the whole world: "My house shall be 
called a house of prayer for all peoples' 7 (56. 7). This 
belief, that the ultimate goal of all history was that all 
men and nations should turn to God and become his 
children, gave to the prophet a new basis for his con- 
templation of the history and destiny of Israel, or, at 
least, caused him to expand and emphasize a view found 
in less developed form in earlier prophetic utterances. 
"Israel alone knows and possesses the true God. Only 
through Israel can the other nations learn to know him, 
and thus Israel becomes the servant and messenger of 
God, the laborer and herald of God to man. Israel 
is to mankind what the prophet is to Israel. God 
is the God of the whole earth, and Israel his prophet 
for the whole earth." 

Israel the Servant of Jehovah to Carry Out his Re- 
demptive Purpose. The prophet looks upon Israel 
as the servant of Jehovah charged with a mission 
to mankind. Perhaps the most unique element in 
the teaching of this prophet, especially in chapters 



242 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

40-53, is the constant reference to the servant of 
Jehovah. That some of the passages refer to Israel 
as the servant cannot be doubted. For example, 
41. 8ff., "But thou„ Israel, my servant," or 44, 1, 
"Yet now hear, O Jacob my servant, and Israel, 
whom I have chosen," and several more. It is to be 
noted, however, that in these and similar passages 
Israel is always spoken of as a nation with a mission. 
Delitzsch's Interpretation of the Servant Passages. 
The significance of these passages is quite clear, 
but there are many who hold that as the prophet 
proceeds and his argument progresses the meaning of 
the term "servant of Jehovah" changes. In the words 
of Delitzsch, "The idea of the servant assumed, as 
it were, the form of a pyramid. The base was the 
people of Israel as a whole, the central section was 
Israel according to the Spirit, and the apex is the 
person of the mediator of salvation springing out of 
Israel." That in some cases the term cannot be used 
of the historical nation Israel is shown, for example, 
in 49. iff., where the servant describes the mission 
he has received from Jehovah. The servant is still 
called Israel: "Thou art my servant; Israel, in whom 
I will be glorified" (3); but it is distinctly stated 
that the servant has a mission to the nation Israel, 
and, after that mission is fulfilled, to the other nations 
(5, 6). Here a distinction is made between the his- 
torical nation Israel, or, the Israel after the flesh, and 
the ideal Israel, which had its historical existence in 
the faithful worshipers of Jehovah within the nation, 
or, the Israel after the Spirit. The Israel after the 
flesh is apostate (42. 18), and the first task of the 
Israel after the Spirit is to restore the apostate nation. 



ISAIAH, FORTY TO SIXTY-SIX 243 

This done, the whole redeemed nation may enter upon 
its redemptive work for the nations of the earth. 

The Servant in Isa. 52. 13—53. I2 » It * s l ess 
certain that anywhere in the section the servant of 
Jehovah is spoken of as an individual. The two 
passages which are thought by some to favor an 
individual interpretation are 50. 4-9 and 52. 13 — 53. 12. 
If these passages stood by themselves they might be 
thus interpreted, but if studied in connection with 
the other "servant" passages and in the light of their 
context it seems more natural to refer these also to 
the righteous nucleus within the nation. The personi- 
fication may seem very bold, but having once repre- 
sented Israel, that is, a collective idea, as a servant, 
that is, as an individual, the author would naturally 
continue to speak of the personified collective as an 
individual. In 50. 4-9 the personified righteous 
nucleus is represented as expressing its consciousness 
of a divinely given mission. In 52. 13-15 Jehovah 
announces the exaltation of the servant after his 
difficult task is accomplished. In 53. 1 the penitent 
Israel of the future is the speaker; the servant is again 
the righteous portion, which has at last succeeded in 
bringing the nation to its senses. The redeemed 
nation, looking back over the past, tells of its feelings 
as it watched the fortunes of the faithful. At first 
it thought that their sufferings were punishment for 
sin, as was the case with the wicked; but at last it 
came to see that all the sufferings were endured in 
order to win the faithless portion of the nation back 
to Jehovah. 

That this is the right interpretation of these pas- 
sages is shown also by the fact, to which attention is 



244 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

called in several places, that the servant is to have 
an important part in the restoration of the exiles 
from captivity and in bringing them to a true knowl- 
edge of Jehovah. Only when the righteous nucleus 
has accomplished this task, the whole redeemed nation 
may enter upon its larger work, to lead all nations 
to a knowledge of the true God. This greater work 
receives special emphasis in chapters 54^. 

The Fulfillment of Isa. 52. 13—53. 12. Christians 
are accustomed to look upon the fifty-third chapter 
of Isaiah as a Messianic passage finding its fulfill- 
ment in Jesus the Christ; and the above interpreta- 
tion does not interfere with this view. The " servant,' ' 
whoever he may have been in the mind of the prophet, 
remains a type of Jesus. ( Israel, the servant of redemp- 
tion, through disobedience cut itself off, as a nation, 
from God and its place in his plan of redemption. 
As a result its place became vacated, and another 
servant had to be substituted. This other servant, 
Christians rightly believe, was Jesus the Christ. He 
was the true and perfect servant, who wrought a 
salvation far superior to that which Israel ever could 
have accomplished, a salvation not for time only, but 
for eternity, not external only, but internal, not only 
for the nation as a whole, but for every individual 
in the nation, not for Israel alone, but for mankind. 

Glories of the Messianic Age. Perhaps no other 
prophet portrays the glories and splendor of the 
future kingdom of God as vividly as does the author 
of these chapters. The spiritual restoration of Israel 
and the return to its former home mark the inaugura- 
tion of a new age, "an age of universal salvation in 
which all nations share in the blessings that flow 



ISAIAH, FORTY TO SIXTY-SIX 245 

from the knowledge of the true God." The com- 
pleteness of the transformation is indicated in the 
promise that a new heaven and a new earth will be 
established (65. 17, 18). As in the other prophetic 
books, Jerusalem is expected to be the center of the 
new kingdom, to which all the nations of the earth 
will come with their gifts. It will be illumined with 
a light and splendor that proceed from Jehovah him- 
self (chapter 60). Israel will be the priestly mediator 
between Jehovah and the nations (61. 5, 6). The 
curse of barrenness will be removed from the land, 
the wilderness will become like Eden and the desert 
like the garden of Jehovah (51. 3). The peace of 
paradise will also be restored (65. 25). 

Material prosperity and magnificence occupy a large 
place in the expectations of the prophet: the archi- 
tectural beauty of Zion (54. 11, 12; 60. 13, 17), its 
wealth (60. 5-7, 9, 13, 16; 61. 6; 66. 12), security in 
the enjoyment of these blessings (57. 13; 62. 8, 9), and 
a plentiful population (49. 17ft*.; 54. iff.). 

Emphasis upon the Externals of Religion. The 
externals of religion receive more emphasis than they 
do from the earlier prophets. Sabbath observance is 
enjoined (56. 2, 6; 58. 13), burnt offerings and other 
sacrifices are commended (56. 7), the riches of the 
nations will be used for the beautifying of Jehovah's 
sanctuary (60. 13). But the prophet by no means 
overlooks the weightier matters. He makes it clear 
throughout the entire prophecy that only those who 
live in true heart fellowship with Jehovah can enjoy 
the glories of the new age; and his description of the 
ideal fast resembles in every respect the high ethical 
teaching of the eighth century prophets (58. 6, 7). 



CHAPTER XI 
HAGGAI AND ZECHARIAH 

FROM THE RETURN TO THE DEDICATION OF THE TEMPLE IN 
516 B. C. 

Mr 

Date of Haggai and Zechariah. Haggai and 
Zechariah were contemporaries. The utterances of 
Haggai are all dated in the second year of Darius 
Hystaspis, king of Persia, that is, in 520 B. C. During 
that year he spoke on four occasions: on the first 
day of the sixth month (1. 1), on the twenty-first day 
of the seventh month (2. 1), and twice on the twenty- 
fourth day of the ninth month (2.10, 20). The activity 
of Zechariah began in the second year of King Darius, 
in the eighth month (1. 1), that is, about two months 
after Haggai began preaching. The last date men- 
tioned is the fourth day of the ninth month of the 
fourth year of Darius (7. 1). Since Zechariah was 
probably a young man when the prophetic call came 
to him, his influence may have been felt for many 
years subsequent to 518 B. C. 

The First Return from Exile. Babylon fell into 
the hands of Cyrus in 538. Soon after the occupancy 
of the city he gave permission to the Jews to return 
to their former homes, and encouraged in every way 
the restoration of the Jewish commonwealth. This 
leniency, shown also toward other nations deported by 
his predecessors, was undoubtedly due, in part at 
least, to political considerations. A clash with Egypt 
was inevitable; hence it was to the interest of Cyrus 

246 



HAGGAI AND ZECHARIAH 247 

to have on the Egyptian border a state that was 
bound to him by the strongest ties of gratitude, and 
upon the fidelity of which he could rely. In the 
spring of 537 a large company started on the home- 
ward journey. On reaching Jerusalem the returned 
exiles immediately set up the altar of burnt offerings 
(Ezra 3. 2ff. ; compare Hag. 2. 14), and, according to 
Ezra 3. 8-13, they laid, in the second year, the founda- 
tion of the temple. 

Cessation of Building Operations. However, the 
first enthusiasm soon grew cold and building opera- 
tions ceased. The reasons for this are not far to seek: 
(1) During their stay in Babylon the exiles had learned 
to do without the temple; only the religious zealots, 
always in the minority, would miss it. (2) The oppo- 
sition of the Samaritans and other surrounding tribes 
would offer a ready excuse to the indifferent Jews. 
(3) The nonfulfillment of the earlier prophecies con- 
cerning the glories of the restoration would tend to 
develop religious indifference and skepticism. (4) 
Limited resources and poverty resulting from the 
failure of the crops (1. 6) and from the devastation 
wrought by the Persian armies on their way to Egypt 
could and would be urged. It is not difficult, then, 
to see how building operations begun in 536 might 
come to a complete standstill. 

Events Affecting the Fortunes of Persia. While 
the postexilic community was struggling against great 
odds to establish itself in and near Jerusalem, impor- 
tant events were taking place in the outside world. 
Cyrus died in 529, leaving to his son Cambyses an 
empire extending from Lydia in the west to India in 
the east. Cambyses, who reigned until 521, added 



248 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

Egypt to his possessions. He was followed by a 
usurper, Gaumata, who pretended to be Smerdis, the 
son of Cyrus, but after a reign of seven months he 
was assassinated and Darius Hystaspis was raised to 
the throne. He found the empire in a state of great 
restlessness; rebellions broke out everywhere, province 
after province revolted; in Babylon two pretenders 
attempted, in rapid succession, to throw off the Persian 
rule. The whole empire was shaken from end to end. 

Interpretation of these Events by the Prophets. 
Haggai and Zechariah, like their predecessors in the 
prophetic office, read the signs of the times. They 
saw in the widespread rebellions an indication of the 
impending doom of the Persian empire (Hag. 2. 6, 7, 
22), and of the expiration of the seventy years of 
chastisement (Jer. 25. 11). They were also convinced 
that, with the hostile world power removed, the way 
would be clear for the establishment of the kingdom 
of God. But in the thought of the two prophets the 
establishment of the Messianic kingdom was closely 
connected with the rebuilding of the temple and the 
exaltation of a descendant of David. Hence the 
earnest exhortations to resume building operations and 
the promises to Zerubbabel, the servant of Jehovah. 

Religious and Moral Conditions. The one out- 
standing feature seems to have been religious indif- 
ference, due to the causes already mentioned, especially 
to disappointment. The preexilic and exilic prophets 
had pictured the glories of the restoration in the 
brightest colors, and thus had raised the hopes and 
expectations of the returning exiles to the highest 
pitch; but when the years passed without the realiza- 
tion of these hopes, indifference and skepticism settled 



HAGGAI AND ZECHARIAH 249 

upon them. Why serve a God who failed to fulfill 
the promises made by his prophets? For this reason 
the people looked after their own comforts, while 
they neglected the interests of the sanctuary (Hag. 1.9), 
excusing themselves by saying that the time for the 
building of the temple had not yet arrived (Hag. 1.2). 
On the other hand, they brought sacrifices and offer- 
ings (Hag. 2. 14), and the ritual law was observed 
in other respects (Hag. 2. 11-13). Chapters 7, 8 of 
Zechariah show that feasts and fasts were observed. 
Otherwise we are left in the dark concerning religious 
and moral conditions in Judah at this time. 

THE PROPHETS HAGGAI AND ZECHARIAH 

Haggai. Haggai appears upon the scene suddenly 
in 520 B. C, and disappears just as suddenly. Nothing 
is known of his life before or after his preaching. 
Chiefly on the basis of 2. 3 it has been suggested that 
he was one of a small company that had seen the 
former temple in its glory. If so, he must have been 
an old man when he prophesied; and this supposition 
agrees with the brevity of his public activity. 

Zechariah. Zechariah was the son of Berechiah, 
the son of Iddo (1. 1). Iddo was the chief of one of 
the priestly families that returned from exile with 
Zerubbabel and Joshua (Neh. 12. 4). Outside of the 
Book of Zechariah the prophet is mentioned in Ezra 
5. 1; 6. 14 as instrumental, with Haggai, in reviving 
interest in the rebuilding of the temple. In Neh. 
12. 16 a priest Zechariah is mentioned, who may be 
identical with our prophet. If he was the grandson 
of Iddo, who returned in 537, Zechariah was probably 
a young man when he began his prophetic ministry; 



250 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

hence the influence of his personality may have been 
felt for many years subsequent to the latest date 
mentioned in the book, 518 B. C, but of the later 
years of the prophet nothing is known. 

Task of the Prophets. The age needed prophets 
with living faith and moral earnestness. The lofty 
anticipations of the preexilic and exilic prophets had 
not been realized; the foreign oppressor was still 
strong and powerful, while the Jews were poor and 
feeble. As a result the first hopeful enthusiasm of 
the returned exiles had been displaced by despondency 
and gloom. To remove these and to revive faith in 
God and in the ultimate triumph of his kingdom was 
the task of Haggai and Zechariah. 

THE MESSAGE OF HAGGAI 

The Book of Haggai contains four separate utter- 
ances, 1. 1-11; 2. 1-9; 2. 10-19; 2 - 20-23, the first 
three dealing more or less directly with the rebuilding 
of the temple, and an historical section (1. 12-15), 
which describes the effects of the first discourse. 

Rebuke of Indifference; Exhortation to Resume 
Building Operations, 1. 1-11. The first address (1. 
1-11) was intended primarily for Zerubbabel and 
Joshua, the civil and ecclesiastical heads of the com- 
munity (1. 1). The prophet rebukes the religious 
indifference that has permitted the people to erect 
comfortable houses for themselves, while the temple 
remained in ruins (2-4). He calls attention to the 
disappointments, distress, and suffering which they 
are experiencing as a result of drought, and tells them 
that these afflictions have come to them as divine 
judgments for their religious apathy. If they would 



HAGGAI AND ZECHARIAH 251 

find relief they must speedily restore the dwelling 
place of Jehovah (5-1 1). 

Resumption of Building Operations, 1. 12-15. 
The preaching of Haggai aroused the consciences of 
leaders and people, so that they feared Jehovah (12). 
When the prophet saw indications of a revival of 
interest he changed his message of rebuke into one 
of encouragement and promise (13); whereupon, on 
the twenty-fourth day of the sixth month, building 
operations were commenced (14, 15). 

Message of Encouragement to the Builders, 2. 1-9. 
It would seem that when the first enthusiasm had 
died down, people began to think more soberly about 
the obstacles to be encountered. Their numbers were 
small, the building material was costly, some of it had 
to be brought from a distance, there were no resources 
such as Solomon could draw upon, and no allies to 
assist in the work; instead, they had to suffer much 
from their neighbors. Under these discouraging con- 
ditions the fervor of some grew cold, and malcontents 
found ready listeners. What was the use of it all ? They 
could not expect ever to equal the temple of Solomon. 
Why not quit work ? Haggai saw that the enterprise was 
threatened with failure unless he could revive the former 
interest and enthusiasm. He therefore addresses the 
builders," Be strong, ... for I am with you,saith Jehovah 
of hosts" (2. 1-4). The present outlook may be dark, but 
there is no ground for discouragement, for the covenant 
made at the time of the Exodus is still in force, and 
Jehovah will be with his people. In the end the 
new temple, enriched by the wealth of the nations, 
that are about to be shaken violently, shall be more 
glorious than the temple of Solomon (5-9). 



252 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

Completion of the Temple a Sure Guarantee of 
the Return of the Divine Favor, 2. 10-19. In a 

short time new questions arose among the people. 
Were they really as bad as Haggai had tried to make 
out in his first discourse? And if not, how much 
truth was there in his statements that their calamities 
were due to their neglect of the temple, and in his 
promise that prosperity would be restored as soon as 
they would rebuild the temple? To silence these 
doubts and questionings is the purpose of the third 
discourse. The prophet propounds to the priests cer- 
tain questions concerning the relative power of infection 
possessed by clean and unclean things. The priests 
reply that the clean is less contagious than the unclean 
(10-13). This answer the prophet applies to the case 
in hand. True, they offer gifts, but they are insufficient 
to overcome the unclean in their lives, especially the 
indifference toward the temple; on the contrary, their 
uncleanness makes even their sacrifices an abomination 
in the sight of Jehovah (14). Once more he discusses 
the relation between their calamities and their neglect- 
fulness, and shows that the former are the direct 
result of the latter; then he closes with the promise 
that henceforth the divine favor will rest upon them 

(15-19). 

Exaltation of Zerubbabel, the Servant of Jehovah, 
2. 20-23. The fourth utterance is Messianic in char- 
acter. It promises the exaltation of Zerubbabel, 
the prince of David's house. In the second discourse 
the prophet announced the shaking of the nations of 
the earth (2. 6, 7) ; this announcement he now repeats, 
and adds the promise that the shaking will pave the 
way for the establishment of the kingdom of God 



HAGGAI AND ZECHARIAH 253 

under the rule of Zerubbabel, the servant and chosen 
one of Jehovah (2. 20-23). 

THE TEACHING OF HAGGAI 

Unique Place Assigned to the Temple. Haggai was a 
man of one idea, the speedy restoration of the dwelling 
place of Jehovah. The preexilic prophets also consid- 
ered the temple the dwelling place of Jehovah, but their 
teaching dwelt almost exclusively upon weightier ethical 
and spiritual matters. With Haggai the rebuilding of 
the temple is of primary importance. It does not follow, 
however, that his religious capacity was inferior to 
theirs. The change in emphasis was due rather to a 
change in conditions. The Hebrew prophets were raised 
up primarily to meet the problems of their day and gen- 
eration. Now conditions in Jerusalem after the exile 
were far different from those in the eighth century B. C. 
As a prophet of Jehovah Haggai must adapt himself and 
his message to the changed conditions ; he must interpret 
religion "in accordance with the needs of a new age." 
The supreme need was a visible, earthly temple. True, 
some of the prophets speak of a time when a house 
made with hands will be needed no longer (Isa. 66. 
1, 2), but the Jews of the latter part of the sixth 
century were not yet prepared to grasp this lofty 
conception of the presence of Jehovah. As was the 
ark in the ages gone by, so now the temple was the 
outward symbol of the presence of Jehovah, and if the 
Jews were to continue the worship of Jehovah they still 
needed a material temple. Besides, with the central 
national government gone, a new bond was needed to 
draw together the different elements in the community 
and the exiles scattered among the nations. In a reli- 



254 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

gious community what could serve this purpose better 
than a common center of worship, a place to which the 
hearts of the faithful Jews might turn, even from the 
uttermost parts of the earth, assured that there they 
would meet their God? Is it, then, too much to say 
that, humanly speaking, the very existence of the 
Jewish religion was dependent upon the rebuilding of 
the temple? But if this is true, Haggai, by pleading 
so persistently for the rebuilding of the house of God, 
did a service of incalculable moment. 

Summary of Haggai's Teaching. Other features of 
Haggai's teaching are: (i) He calls attention to the 
covenant relation between Jehovah and Israel, and to the 
former's continued care for the latter (2. 5) ; this cove- 
nant, he declares, will continue forever (1. 13; 2. 4). 
(2) He agrees with the preexilic prophets in declaring 
that sacrifice is not the essential thing in the sight of 
God (2. 14). (3) He shares the older prophets' ideas 
concerning the causes of calamity and prosperity. The 
former he considers an expression of the divine wrath, 
a punishment for sin; the latter an expression of the 
divine favor, a reward for piety (1. 6-11; 2. 15-19). 
(4) He expects a great world judgment which will result 
in the overthrow of the nations; this overthrow is to 
clear the way for the establishment of the kingdom 
of God upon earth (2. 6, 7, 21, 22). (5) His Messianic 
hope centers around an offspring of the dynasty of David, 
Zerubbabel, who is the servant of Jehovah, his chosen 
one, the object of his affection (2. 23); he also thinks 
of Jehovah as ruling forever in the temple (2. 9). 
(6) Of great significance is the universalism of Haggai. 
In 2. 7 he expresses the hope that the nations of the 
earth, overawed by Jehovah's majesty and power, will 



HAGGAI AND ZECHARIAH 255 

recognize his supremacy and bring their precious things 
as offerings to him. 
Haggai's One Idea Seen in All his Teaching. 

The presentation of these truths is highly colored by 
the prophet's one idea. He alludes to the covenant 
only to encourage the people to greater zeal in their 
building operations ; sacrifice he mentions to show that 
it cannot atone for their neglect of the temple. Their 
calamity or prosperity is determined by their attitude 
toward the restoration of the house of God ; the over- 
throw and conversion of the nations will result in the 
enriching of the temple; the establishment of the 
kingdom of God and the exaltation of Zerubbabel will 
be the supreme manifestations of the divine favor, 
but they will be theirs only if they build a dwelling 
place for Jehovah. 

THE MESSAGE OF ZECHARIAH 

Call to Repentance, 1. 1-6. Zechariah delivered 
his first message about two months after Haggai's 
first appearance. The book opens with a call to 
repentance, in which Zechariah urges his hearers to 
return to Jehovah, that they may enjoy once more 
the divine favor. He reinforces this exhortation by 
an appeal to the experiences of their ancestors, who 
suffered severe punishments because they disregarded 
the teaching of the prophets. The disobedience of the 
present generation may be followed by a similar 
catastrophe (1. 1-6). 

Eight Night Visions, 1. 7—6. 8. About three 
months after Zechariah's first utterance there came to 
him in one single night a series of symbolical visions. 
Their significance was made plain to him by a heavenly 



256 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

interpreter (i. 7 — 6. 8). All these visions have one 
common purpose, "the encouragement of the Jews to 
continue the work of restoring the temple and rebuild- 
ing the city, and the reestablishing of the theocratic 
government." 

(1) The Angelic Horsemen, 1. 7-17. In the first 
vision — the angelic horsemen — the prophet beholds a 
man riding upon a horse standing among myrtle trees 
(1. 7, 8); he is accompanied by other horsemen, who 
report that they have walked to and fro and have 
found the whole earth at rest (9-1 1). Since a shaking 
of the nations must precede the establishment of the 
kingdom of God (Hag. 2. 6, 7, 21, 22), the report 
meant that there was no sign of the approach of the 
Messianic era. This is a disappointment to the angel 
who receives the report, and he inquires of Jehovah 
how long he will delay his gracious interference (12), 
to which Jehovah replies that though the shaking may 
be delayed he will surely return to his people and 
bless them and their land with abundant prosperity 
(13-17). The vision, therefore, is a message of encour- 
agement to the despondent people to retain faith in 
Jehovah, for he will surely fulfill the Messianic promises 
of the past. 

(2) The Four Horns and the Four Smiths, 1. 18-21. 
The second vision — the four horns and the four 
smiths — pictures the execution of judgment upon 
Israel's enemies. The prophet beholds four horns. 
Upon inquiry he is told by the interpreter that the 
horns symbolize the nations that have scattered the 
Jews. He also sees four smiths, who, he is informed, 
represent the divinely appointed agents to execute 
judgment upon the hostile nations (1. 18-21). 



HAGGAI AND ZECHARIAH 257 

; (3) The Man with the Measuring Line, 2. 1-1 3. The 
overthrow of the nations will prepare the way for the 
exaltation of the now oppressed people: Jerusalem 
will be rebuilt, Jehovah will return to live in Zion, 
and many nations will join themselves to the redeemed 
community. To impress these truths upon prophet 
and people is the purpose of the third vision — the 
man with the measuring line (2. 1-13). Zechariah 
sees a man with a measuring line in his hand, going 
forth to measure Jerusalem, for the purpose of deter- 
mining the location of the new walls (1, 2). He is 
informed that walls are not necessary because (1) the 
city will be too populous to be contained within walls, 
and (2) Jehovah himself will be a wall of fire around 
her (3-5). The vision proper is followed by an exhorta- 
tion to the exiled Jews to get ready to flee from the 
land of exile (6, 7), for Jehovah is about to shake the 
nations (8, 9) ; then he will return to Zion, to take his 
permanent abode there (10-13). 

(4) The Trial of the High Priest, Chapter 3. The 
first, second, and third visions deal with the judgment 
upon the nations, the restoration from exile, the 
rebuilding of city and temple, and the expansion of 
the new community to the four corners of the earth. 
But to bring about permanent peace and harmony 
between Jehovah and his people there is needed, in 
addition to all these things, a moral and spiritual 
regeneration. This regeneration is symbolized in the 
fourth vision — the trial and acquittal of the high 
priest Joshua (3. 1-10). Zechariah sees the high priest 
Joshua standing before the angel of Jehovah; at his 
right hand is the adversary, ready to bring accusations 
against him; but before he can present the charges he 



258 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

is severely rebuked (i, 2). At the command of the 
angel the servants take from Joshua his filthy gar- 
ments and clothe him in the rich garments of the 
high-priestly office (3-5). Whereupon the angel in- 
structs Joshua in the duties and responsibilities of the 
office to which he is restored, and promises him access 
to the Most High, if he will properly discharge his 
duties (6, 7). He and his followers are proclaimed a 
sign of the coming of "Branch," who will remove 
iniquity from the land in one day, and restore peace 
and prosperity forever (8-10). 

These experiences come to the high priest not as an in- 
dividual, but as the representative of the people. What- 
ever befalls him affects the whole people. His cleansing 
symbolizes the cleansing of the people, his restoration 
the restoration of the people to intimate fellowship 
with their God. Because the cleansing of the high priest 
symbolizes this regeneration, he can become a sign 
of the coming of "Branch," who will complete the task 
and become the ruler of the regenerated community. 

(5) The Golden Candlestick and the Two Olive Trees, 
Chapter 4. The fourth and fifth visions are closely 
connected. The former centers around the person of 
the ecclesiastical head, Joshua, the high priest; the 
latter — the vision of the golden candlestick and the 
two olive trees — centers around the person of the 
civil head, Zerubbabel, the governor. In the vision 
Zechariah beholds a golden candlestick with seven 
lamps ; on top was an oil reservoir connected with 
the lamps by pipes. Beside it stood two olive trees; 
from the overhanging branches of these oil flowed 
continually into the reservoir and from it into the 
lamps (4. 1-14). 



HAGGAI AND ZECHARIAH 259 

It may not be possible to determine the meaning 
of every feature of this vision, but its general purpose 
is clear. "It is intended to encourage Zerubbabel in 
the work of rebuilding the temple by impressing upon 
him the truth that, as that candlestick gave forth its 
light in silent, ceaseless splendor, unfed and untended 
by human agencies, so the work in which he was 
engaged" should surely be accomplished through the 
Divine Spirit's cooperation with him. The mountains 
of difficulty will be brought low, and he will carry 
his divinely appointed task to completion. 

(6) The Flying Roll; (7) The Woman in the Ephah, 
Chapter 5. The sixth and seventh visions — the flying 
roll and the woman in the ephah — serve similar ends. 
The removal of all iniquity is promised in 3. 9; the 
two visions indicate two methods by which it will be 
accomplished, namely, the destruction of the wicked 
and the removal of sin to a far-distant land, where it 
will curse Israel's former oppressors. In the sixth 
vision the prophet beholds flying through the air an 
immense roll, symbolizing the curse of God upon evil- 
doers of every kind. He is informed that the roll will 
enter the house of every wicked man and consume it 
utterly (5. 1-4). In the seventh vision the prophet 
sees an ephah, in which sits a woman ; upon its mouth 
is a cover. Two women with wings lift up the ephah 
and carry it through the air. Upon inquiry he is 
told that the woman is to be deposited in the land of 
Shinar. As the vision unfolds the interpreter explains 
its symbolical meaning. The woman represents wick- 
edness, which is to be removed from the land (3. 9). 
She is fastened securely in the ephah, but to reduce 
the danger of pollution to a minimum she is carried 



2 6o PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

to the distant Shinar, there to be established forever 

(5- 5-")- 

(8) The Four Chariots with Horses of Different 
Colors, 6. i-8. In the eighth and last vision — the 
four chariots with horses of different colors — the 
prophet sees coming from between two mountains four 
chariots drawn by horses of different colors (6. 1-4). 
According to the present Hebrew text, two were com- 
missioned to go toward the north, and one toward the 
south; the destination of the fourth is not indicated. 
It is not improbable, however, that originally the 
four points of the compass were mentioned, one chariot 
being sent to each. The chariots represent divine 
messengers of judgment, and the vision is intended 
to reveal the fate that is to befall the enemies of the 
Jews, especially those in the north country. When 
the judgment upon the north country is executed, the 
anger of Jehovah is appeased and his spirit is quieted 
(5-8). This vision, then, like the first, is meant to 
assure the prophet that Jehovah is about to execute 
judgment upon the nations hostile to him and to his 
people. 

Crowning of the High Priest Joshua, 6. 0-15. The 
series of symbolical visions is followed by a com- 
mand to perform a symbolical act (9-15), which is so 
closely connected with the preceding visions that it 
seems best to consider this section a sort of appendix 
to them. The prophet is urged to adorn the high 
priest Joshua with a crown made of the silver and 
gold sent by the exiles from Babylon (9-1 1), and to 
proclaim him the type of ''Branch," who is about to 
appear to complete the temple and to rule over the 
people. His fame will spread quickly, and those who 






HAGGAI AND ZECHARIAH 261 

are afar off will come and join in the building enter- 
prise (12-15). 
The Essence of True Religion, Chapters 7, 8. 

After a silence of nearly two years the voice of Zechariah 
was heard again. In the fourth year of King Darius 
a deputation came to the prophet, inquiring whether 
the observance of the fasts instituted to commemorate 
the destruction of Jerusalem was still obligatory 
(7. 1-3). This question would suggest itself to many 
as the temple neared completion and the seventy 
years since the destruction of Jerusalem were drawing 
to a close. In reply the prophet points out that 
fasting is not an end in itself, that it is of value only 
as a means of increasing devotion and piety in the 
one who practices it (4-6). Then he turns the atten- 
tion of the delegation to the ethical character of the 
divine demands and shows that by disregarding these 
their fathers had brought upon themselves awful 
judgments (7-14). Reaffirming Jehovah's jealousy for 
Zion, he pictures the glory and prosperity in store for 
Judah and Jerusalem (8. 1-17). When these glories 
are realized the question of fasts will solve itself, for 
they will be transformed into seasons of joy and 
rejoicing, to which multitudes will flock from all parts 
of the land. Even foreign nations will gladly join the 
Jews in their festivities (18-23). 

THE TEACHING OF ZECHARIAH 

Zechariah and his Predecessors. Zechariah differs 
widely from the prophets who preceded him in three 
points: (1) in the emphasis which he places upon 
visions as a means of divine communication; (2) in 
the apocalyptic symbolism that enters into the visions ; 



262 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

(3) in the large place occupied by angelic mediation 
in his intercourse with Jehovah. The first two concern 
chiefly the form of revelation; only the last may be 
considered an element in his teaching. 

Angels in Zech. 1-8. In Zech. 1-8 we have in 
embryo some of the ideas which are found in a fuller 
stage of development in the later Jewish and New 
Testament angelology. Here we find also the beginning 
of the tendency so widespread in the later Judaism 
to look upon Jehovah as too sacred to come into direct 
contact with human beings. Even prophecy seems to 
have lost in a measure its sense of immediate com- 
munion with God. The prophet receives his instruc- 
tion through an angel, who acts as intermediary, 
interpreter, and guide. Angels appear in the unfolding 
of the visions, they carry forward the events symbol- 
ized, and they are active participants in the working 
out of human history. Here also is used for the first 
time the noun "Satan." With Zechariah the word is 
not yet a proper name; a literal translation of the 
phrase in 3. 1 is "the Adversary" (so margin R. V.); 
it becomes a proper name only in 1 Chron. 21. 1 ; but 
the adversary of Zechariah is closely related to the 
adversary who plays such an important part in the 
Book of Job, to Satan — now a proper name — in 1 
Chron. 21. 1, and to the Satan of the New Testa- 
ment. 

Unique Place of the Temple. From beginning to end 
Zechariah pleads for the rebuilding of the house of 
Jehovah, and his sublimest promises center around the 
completed temple. With him the rebuilding of the 
dwelling place of Jehovah is an indispensable con- 
dition of the arrival of the Messianic era. "As the 



HAGGAI AND ZECHARIAH 263 

commencement of the judgment formerly showed it- 
self when the glory of Jehovah was seen by Ezekiel to 
forsake the temple, so upon the day when Jehovah 
once more makes his abode with his people all the 
distress of the time shall come to an end; in short, 
this dwelling of Jehovah in the temple is the sine qua non 
of the dawn of the Messianic age." This high estima- 
tion of the priesthood and the temple, and so of the 
externals of religion, is not the outgrowth of lower 
spiritual conceptions, but rather of a clear appreciation 
of the needs of the hour. The Jews had not yet reached 
the stage of religious and spiritual development when 
they could afford to discard forms and symbols; they 
still needed the temple as a symbol of the presence 
of Jehovah. Besides, in an age when religion was 
the only bond that united the heterogeneous elements 
in the postexilic community, it was needed as a 
common place of worship. Continued existence with- 
out a temple would have resulted, humanly speaking, 
in the loss of true religion to the world. The fullness 
of time, when people would worship Jehovah "neither 
in this mountain nor in Jerusalem," but everywhere 
i in spirit and in truth, had not yet arrived. 

The Messianic Hope. Of importance are also the 
Messianic hopes of Zechariah. The temple plays a 
prominent part, but only as an earnest of better 
things to come; the high priest and his fellows receive 
honor, but only as signs of one greater than they, of 
"Branch." Around the person of this Branch center 
the Messianic hopes of Zechariah. It is he who shall 
complete the building of the temple, who shall have 
constant access to Jehovah, who shall reign in peace 
forever. The prophet identifies Branch with Zerub- 



264 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

babel (4. 7) ; in his person, therefore, a descendant of 
David comes once more to the front, destined to 
occupy a prominent place in the kingdom of God. 
The blessings of the Messianic age will be both temporal 
(for example, 1. 17; 2. 4, 5) and spiritual (for example, 
2. 10; 3. 9); they will be enjoyed primarily by the 
Jews, but not by them exclusively. True, some of 
the nations are destined to be "a spoil to those that 
served them," but the prophet also anticipates the 
conversion of some outsiders: "And many nations shall 
join themselves to Jehovah in that day, and shall be 
my people" (2. 11). 

The Essential Requirements of Jehovah. Zechariah 
has been accused of being the teacher of a heartless 
and unspiritual formalism. An unbiased study of his 
prophecies proves this accusation to be false, for he 
teaches plainly that forms and ceremonies are not 
essential elements of true religion (compare chapters 
7, 8). His conception of the requirements of Jehovah 
is indicated in these words: "Speak ye every man the 
truth with his neighbor; execute the judgment of 
truth and peace in your gates; and let none of you 
devise evil in your hearts against his neighbor; and 
love no false oath : for all these are things that I hate, 
saith Jehovah" (8. 16, 17). He values forms and 
ceremonies only as means of grace, by the use of which 
men may be led into purer and nobler lives. His 
conception of the Messianic age includes the removal of 
sin from land and people (chapters 3 and 5). 

The Ultimate Triumph of Israel Dependent on Di- 
vine Cooperation. Another truth constantly empha- 
sized by Zechariah is that the ultimate triumph is 
dependent on the divine cooperation "Not by might, 



HAGGAI AND ZECHARIAH 265 

nor by power, but by my Spirit, saith Jehovah of 
hosts" (4. 6). These words have reference primarily 
to the rebuilding of the temple, but the prophet insists 
from beginning to end that the success and well-being 
of the people depends upon the divine favor and 
cooperation. 

THE HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF ZECHARIAH 9-14 

In view of the fact that many scholars, conservative 
and advanced, consider chapters 9-14 not the work of 
Zechariah, the contemporary of Haggai, it seems best 
to study these chapters separately. Whatever their 
exact date, they undoubtedly presuppose an historical 
situation within Jerusalem and without different from 
that which gave rise to the utterances embodied in 
chapters 1-8. "Zech. 1-8 picture the whole earth at 
peace, which was true at least of all Syria; they por- 
tend no danger to Jerusalem from the heathen, but 
describe her peace and fruitful expansion in terms 
most suitable to the circumstances imposed upon her 
by the solid and clement policy of the earlier Persian 
kings. This is all changed in 9-14. The nations are 
restless; a siege of Jerusalem is imminent, and her 
salvation is to be assured only by much war and a 
terrible shedding of blood. We know exactly how 
Israel fared and felt in the early sections of the Persian 
period; her interest in the politics of the world, her 
feelings toward her governors, and her whole attitude 
toward the heathen were not at that time those which 
are reflected in Zech. 9-14." , Some hold that the 
chapters are preexilic, others that they are post- 
exilic; on the whole, the latter is the more probable, 
and in the postexilic period, a date not earlier than 
350 B. C. 



266 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

CONTENTS OF ZECHARIAH 9-14 

Zech. 9-14 consists of various oracles, loosely con- 
nected, dealing for the most part with events leading 
up to the final triumph of the kingdom of God. 

Overthrow of the Nations, the Messianic King, and 
his Victories, 9. 1 — 10. 2. The section opens with 
a threat against the nations surrounding Palestine. A 
judgment proceeding from the north or northeast 
will fall in succession upon Syria, Phoenicia, and 
Philistia (9. 1-7). While these nations are wiped out 
Jerusalem will rest in safety (8). After the overthrow 
of these nations the Messianic king will appear, to 
establish his throne in Zion and reign in righteousness 
and peace over the redeemed remnant (9, 10). The 
advent of the Messianic king will be followed by the 
restoration of the Jews still in exile (11, 12) and the 
overthrow of the hostile nations through the restored 
exiles (13, 14). The struggle will be bloody, but 
Jehovah will deliver his people and exalt them to 
glory (15-17). The prophet is not content with 
anticipating the glories of the future; he is anxious to 
transform the present; hence he exhorts his con- 
temporaries to turn even now to Jehovah, the giver 
of every good and perfect gift (10. 1, 2). 

Restoration of the Jews and the Overthrow of 
the Hostile Nations, 10. 3— 11. 3- The restoration 
of the Jews and the overthrow of the hostile nations 
is pictured once more in 10. 3 — 11. 3. When the Jews 
came into the power of hostile nations they were 
governed by cruel foreign rulers. But a change is 
about to take place, for Jehovah will cut off the bad 
shepherds and deliver the oppressed flock (3). The 
survivors of Judah and Ephraim will be transformed 



HAGGAI AND ZECHARIAH 267 

into mighty men (4-7), and Jehovah will bring them 
back from Assyria and Egypt to dwell in their own 
land (8-12), where they may rejoice over the wonder- 
ful deliverance, while the hostile powers wail and 
lament over their own complete undoing (n. 1-3). 

The Good Shepherd and the Foolish Shepherd, 11. 
4-17; 13. 7-9. In 11. 4E. the prophet takes a look 
into the past. In the form of an allegory he describes 
Jehovah's dealings with his people, the ingratitude of 
the latter, the divine wrath, and the resulting judg- 
ment. Jehovah appointed a good shepherd to give 
protection and care to the flock, which Jehovah had 
determined to deliver from its oppressors (4-6), but 
the flock was so unappreciative (7, 8) that finally 
the shepherd decided to discontinue the shepherding 
care (9-14). The result was disastrous, for Jehovah 
gave the flock into the hands of a foolish shepherd, 
who not only neglected the sheep but abused and 
destroyed them to satisfy his own lust (15, 16). This 
condition will not continue forever. The foolish shep- 
herd will be slain, and though a large part of the 
flock will be cut off as punishment for the treatment 
accorded to the good shepherd, one third will be 
preserved, purified, and restored to Jehovah's favor 
(11. 17; 13. 7-9). 

Wonderful Deliverance of Judah and Jerusalem, 
12. 1-9. A new beginning is made in 12. 1. The 
remaining chapters of the book deal with the future 
of Israel. The section falls naturally into two parts, 
12. 1 — 13. 6 and 14. 1-21; chapter 13. 5-7 is best 
understood as the conclusion of 11. 4-17. The first 
part consists of three divisions. The first of these 
(12. 1-9) pictures a wonderful deliverance of Judah 



268 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

and Jerusalem. The prophet beholds the nations of the 
earth gathered around Jerusalem to besiege it, where 
Jehovah smites them with terror (1-4). When the 
chieftains of Judah, who appear to have remained 
inactive during the early part of the struggle, see that 
Jehovah fights for Jerusalem, they turn their weapons 
against the nations. Jehovah saves the tents of Judah 
first, to prevent the inhabitants of Jerusalem from 
magnifying themselves above the country districts, but 
he delivers Jerusalem also from all danger (5-9). 

The Penitential Mourning and Subsequent Fellow- 
ship with Jehovah, 12. 10 — 13. 6. From the triumph 
in battle the prophet turns to the spiritual blessings 
awaiting the people of God. In order to enjoy these 
fully they must first of all turn to Jehovah with heart- 
felt repentance. When the people become fully con- 
scious of the depth of the divine mercy manifesting 
itself in the wonderful deliverance described in verses 
1-9, they will be seized by an intense sorrow for their 
past sins and prostrate themselves in deep humility 
before Jehovah (10-14). The penitential mourning 
and supplication will not be in vain. Jehovah will be 
merciful, remove all sin, and bring about a complete 
moral transformation in the inhabitants of Jerusalem. 
Intimate fellowship with Jehovah will be restored, and 
everything that in any way might hinder direct com- 
munion with him will be swept away; even prophecy, 
as a distinct office, will be abolished (13. 1-6). 

Ultimate Triumph and Glorification of Jerusalem, 
Chapter 14. In chapter 14 the prophet pictures a 
new conflict between Jerusalem and the nations. In 
12. 1-9 the enemies are described as smitten before 
they are able to capture the city; here the threat is 



HAGGAI AND ZECHARIAH 269 

that "the city shall be taken, and the houses rifled, 
and the women ravished; and half of the city shall go 
forth into captivity." Only then Jehovah will appear 
for the salvation of a remnant and the setting up of 
his kingdom (1-7). From Jerusalem, the dwelling 
place of Jehovah, two streams of living waters will go 
forth, covering the whole lc*nd with blessing and fer- 
tility (8-1 1). The nations that have come to war 
against Jerusalem will be destroyed, and their wealth 
will be given to the Jews (12-15). Those who escape 
will turn to Jehovah in true worship ; those who refuse 
to do so will be smitten with drought (16-19). Jeru- 
salem and Judah and all that is in them will be holy 
unto Jehovah (20, 21). 

TEACHING OF ZECHARIAH 9-14 

Exaltation of the Jews. Like the other Old 
Testament prophets, the author of these chapters 
expects the restoration and exaltation of the Jews. 
Chapters 9. 1 — 11. 3 promise the restoration and 
reunion of Judah and Israel under the rule of the 
Messianic king, and the triumph of the reunited nation 
over all enemies. However, these triumphs can be 
theirs only on certain conditions. Their rebellion has 
frequently robbed them of Jehovah's favor; it may 
do so again, and instead of immediate salvation 
additional judgment may be their fate. Chapters 12 
and 14 picture these judgments, but there is always 
added, the promise that in the end the Jews will triumph 
over their enemies and enjoy abundant temporal 
prosperity. However, this is only one phase of the 
author's eschatological hope. In addition, rich spiritual 
gifts await the redeemed remnant. Uncleanness, even 



270 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

the spirit of uncleanness, will be taken away; so also 
everything that in any way might hinder direct per- 
sonal communion with Jehovah. The transformation 
will be so complete that both men and things in Judah 
and Jerusalem will be holy unto Jehovah. That 
ceremonial holiness should occupy a prominent place 
in these pictures cannot appear strange when we 
remember that all postexilic prophecy lays great stress 
upon the externals of religion, but in justice to the 
author we should not forget that he is not content 
with external cleansing. Chapter 13. iff. implies a 
great moral and spiritual regeneration; and the em- 
phasis which he places upon heartfelt repentance 
(12. 10-14) is evidence enough to show that this 
author, like the preexilic prophets, has a clear appre- 
hension of the essentials of true Jehovah religion and 
of the divine plan of redemption. 

Sovereignty of Jehovah. The author of chapters 
9-14 is not behind the prophet Zechariah in recogniz- 
ing that during the Messianic era Jehovah will be 
King of all the nations. True, Judah and Jerusalem 
will enjoy in a special manner the divine favor; true, 
the nations will suffer terrible disasters; but when the 
last conflict is over, a remnant of the nations will 
worship the King, Jehovah of hosts (14. 16-19). 
Jehovah will rule in the midst of his people, with 
Jerusalem as the center of his realm, and unto this 
center many nations will come, saying, "He will teach 
us of his ways, and we will walk in his paths: for out 
of Zion shall go forth instruction, and the word of 
Jehovah from Jerusalem.' ' 

The Messianic King. The person of the Messianic 
king appears in 9. 9, 10. The description of his person 



HAGGAI AND ZECHARIAH 271 

and rule is, on the whole, in perfect accord with the 
portrayals found in other parts of the Old Testament. 
He is righteous and peaceful, and his sovereignty will 
be recognized everywhere. However, two new features 
are added, ''having salvation" and "lowly." The 
thought of the first seems to be that the king will 
enjoy at all times the divine help and favor, so that 
all he undertakes will prosper. The second means that 
he will be of lowly estate, and so better able to sym- 
pathize with those in similar condition. His interest 
will not be confined to the noble and wealthy. 

The Rejected Shepherd. The parable of the good 
shepherd, who was rejected by the people, is a solemn 
warning against the frustration of the loving purpose 
of God through human obstinacy. It was the obstinacy 
of the people that had led them to reject the shepherd 
and had caused the calamities that followed the rejec- 
tion. It may cause even greater distress and disaster 
unless the prophet's contemporaries take heed. The 
promises in chapters 9 and 10 are glorious. Will they 
be realized? All will depend upon the attitude of 
those for whom the blessings are intended. The 
obstinacy of the later Jews prevented their realization 
in the Jewish community. The sublime spiritual 
fulfillment of these prophecies was ushered in by 
Jesus, who, in the carrying out of the divine plan 
of redemption, suffered, as the result of human ob- 
stinacy, a rejection more bitter than that suffered by 
the good shepherd of this prophecy. 



CHAPTER XII 
MALACHI 

THE AUTHOR OF THE BOOK 

The Name Malachi. The last book in the collection 
of the Minor Prophets and in the entire Old Testa- 
ment is assigned to Malachi (i. i). By the second 
century A. D. Malachi had come to be generally re- 
garded as a proper noun, the name of the author of 
the book, but before that date the Hebrew word, 
which means literally "my messenger" or "my angel," 
had been taken by many as a title of the author, whose 
real name, it was assumed, was not mentioned at all. 
For a long time Jewish tradition identified the author 
of the book with Ezra, while others conjectured that 
the author was an incarnate angel. The question has 
been revived in more recent times, some holding that 
Malachi is the name of the author, some that the book 
is anonymous, Malachi being introduced into the 
heading from 3. 1, where the same Hebrew word is 
translated "my messenger." Analogy with the other 
prophetic books would seem to favor the view that 
the name prefixed to a book is a proper name; on the 
other hand, the interpretation of the ancients is not 
without weight. 

Character of the Author. Whoever was the author 
of the Book of Malachi or whatever his name, he is 
worthy to be called a "messenger of Jehovah." He 
was a man of deep convictions born of a personal 
religious experience and constant communion with 

272 



THE PROPHET MALACHI 273 

God, a man with deep insight into the needs and 
shortcomings of his contemporaries and into the mys- 
teries of the divine love and purpose, which, he declared, 
would find its culmination in the establishment of the 
kingdom of God subsequent to the awful catastrophe 
of the day of Jehovah. Following in the footsteps of 
his great predecessors, this prophet declared, with no 
uncertain sound, the will of Jehovah to a priesthood 
and a people that had forgotten the covenant of old. 
He, like the other prophets, announced the certain 
and awful doom of the faithless and the exaltation 
and glorification of the faithful. 

THE HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF THE PROPHECY 

Date of the Prophecy. Internal evidence and com- 
parison with the Books of Ezra and Nehemiah have 
convinced all scholars that the activity of Malachi is 
closely connected with the time and efforts of these 
two reformers. ''The last chapter of canonical Jewish 
history is the key to the last chapter of its prophecy." 
Ezra came from Babylon in 458, Nehemiah about 445 ; 
and after an absence at the Persian court the latter 
made a second visit about 432. Whether Malachi 
prophesied shortly before the coming of Ezra or sub- 
sequent to it, perhaps as late as 432, in connection 
with the second visit of Nehemiah, though discussed 
for many years, cannot be determined with absolute 
certainty. Malachi, like Ezra and Nehemiah, saw the 
need of the hour, and sought to do his part toward 
bringing about a moral and spiritual reformation. 
Whether he was a few years earlier than they or their 
contemporary is a question of secondary importance. 
That they cooperated openly may be doubted in view 



274 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

of the silence of the Books of Ezra and Nehemiah 
concerning such cooperation. 

The Political Background. Zechariah's last utter- 
ance is dated in 518; the temple was completed and 
dedicated in 516; in 458 Ezra came to Jerusalem, and 
some time near the last date Malachi arose as a prophet 
of Jehovah. During the interval between 516 and 458 
the struggle between Greece and Persia and two revolts 
against Persian supremacy in Egypt took place. To 
what extent the Jews were affected by these move- 
ments we do not know. Herodotus declares that 
Syrians from Palestine, which might include Jews, 
served in the army of Xerxes ; and it is not improbable 
that they were called upon to furnish supplies for the 
Persian armies, especially in the wars with Egypt. 
On the whole, however, the attitude of the Persian 
court seems to have been friendly, and it is not un- 
likely that during the greater part of the period the 
Jews bore the yoke patiently. The two exceptions, 
mentioned in Ezra 4. 6 and 4. 7$., may, perhaps, be 
traced to a revival of their Messianic hopes. Xerxes 
came upon the throne in 485 ; only a short time before 
this date Egypt had revolted; these events the Jews 
may have connected with the Messianic utterances of 
Haggai and Zechariah, the revolt in Egypt with the 
shaking of the nations promised in Hag. 2. 7. The 
second manifestation of unrest (Ezra 4. 7ft.) may have 
been connected with the second revolt in Egypt, in 
462, and may have been caused by similar expectations. 
In 458 Ezra the scribe came from the east with 
rich presents from the king and from his countrymen 
still in exile, and with extraordinary powers and 
privileges. He was accompanied by other loyal Jews, 



THE PROPHET MALACHI 275 

and after four months' journey they reached Jerusalem. 
After a brief period of activity Ezra disappears from 
view, and he is not heard of again until after Nehemiah 
had become civil governor in 445. After rebuilding 
the walls of the city Nehemiah undertook various 
social and religious reforms, in whicji he had the 
hearty support of Ezra, who reappeared as suddenly 
as some years previously he had disappeared. Some 
time later Nehemiah was recalled to the Persian court. 
When he returned to Jerusalem in 432 he found that 
the reforms had been undone, and that new evils were 
threatening the integrity of the community. Imme- 
diately he set about to rectify all these abuses, and 
with an account of the new reforms the narrative in 
the Book of Nehemiah closes. 

MORAL AND RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS 

Indifference Caused by Disappointment. Haggai 
and Zechariah labored earnestly to counteract the 
religious indifference which had grown up in the com- 
munity during the years immediately following the 
return from Babylon. They succeeded in arousing 
sufficient enthusiasm in the people to complete the 
temple ; but as the causes of the indifference were not 
removed, it is not strange that very soon the enthu- 
siasm died out and the former indifference, with its 
accompanying evils, reappeared. The glorious expecta- 
tions of the preexilic prophets remained unrealized, 
and the new promises of Haggai and Zechariah were 
not fulfilled. The nations of the earth were not shaken 
(Hag. 2.6, 7), and though the revolts in Egypt seemed 
to give promise of such shaking, in the end Persia 
remained supreme, while Judah remained subject to 



276 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

foreigners. The glory of Solomon's temple was not 
equaled, much less surpassed (Hag. 2. 9); taxes had 
to be paid and provision furnished to the Persian 
armies, which kept the people poor. Mai. 3. 9ft*. 
implies that harvests had again failed as the result 
of drought and plagues of locusts, which was in direct 
contradiction to the promise of Haggai (2. 19). 

The Rise of Skepticism. In consequence of these 
various disappointments many in the nation began to 
ask, Where are the promises made to the fathers? 
What has become of the divine justice (2. 17)? What 
of the divine interest in us? But if Jehovah does not 
care, why should we continue to waste our offerings 
and sacrinces in his service (3. 7-12)? The disappoint- 
ments mentioned were troublesome enough, but those 
in Judah who would retain faith in Jehovah were 
confronted by another perplexity. According to the 
popular conception piety should be rewarded invariably 
with prosperity, impiety with adversity. But there 
grew up in Jerusalem during the first half of the fifth 
century a class of godless nobles who, by the use of 
unscrupulous means, accumulated wealth and lived in 
luxury and splendor (3. 13ft.), and again the question 
arose, Where is the God of justice? Thus the people 
might look within or without, and comparing present 
conditions with the promises of their prophets they 
would meet grave perplexities and problems on every 
hand. Small wonder that many, who perhaps had 
never attained a strong living faith, gave way to a 
temper of moroseness, skepticism, or even positive 
hostility to Jehovah. 

Neglect of the Temple Service. The moral and 
religious conditions reflected in the Book of Malachi 



THE PROPHET MALACHI 277 

and in the portions of Ezra and Nehemiah dealing 
with the same period were the outgrowth of this 
religious indifference and skepticism. The first glimpse 
which the book gives us (1. 6 — 2. 9) reveals the neglect 
of the temple worship by both priests and people. The 
priests performed their offices perfunctorily, and they 
showed by their actions that their heart was not in 
their work. Anything, they thought, was good enough 
for Jehovah, and so they offered the lame and the 
blind upon the altar. They considered the maintenance 
of the temple service too costly and irksome. By 
their example and teaching they caused the people to 
stumble, until all alike failed to render to Jehovah the 
reverence and honor due to his name. A similar unwill- 
ingness to pay the proper religious dues is reflected in 
3. 7-10, where the prophet condemns the people for 
defrauding Jehovah by the withholding of tithes and 
offerings. 

Mixed Marriages and Divorces. A second result 
of the spirit of indifference and skepticism was the 
dying down of the zeal for the maintenance of Israel's 
distinct and separate existence as the people of Jehovah. 
An evidence of this is seen in the wide prevalence of 
mixed marriages, that is, marriage alliances of Israel- 
ites with women of the surrounding heathen nations 
(2. 11, 12; compare Ezra 9. iff.; 10. iff.; Neh. 13. 23ff.). 
Such alliances would break down the barriers between 
the Jewish community and the heathen nations, and 
would open the door for the introduction of heathen 
practices and beliefs, which in the end might affect 
very seriously the purity of the Jehovah religion. In 
some cases these alliances seem to have been preceded 
by the putting away of a Jewish wife. This would 



278 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

have been impossible had the Jews been fully con- 
scious of the unique relation of their nation to Jehovah ; 
but, with faith in Jehovah waning, they forgot the 
duties they owed to one another as members of the 
same covenant nation (2. 10), and lightly divorced 
their Jewish wives to make room for others. But even 
where divorce was not followed by an alliance with 
a foreign woman, the divorce itself implied a disregard 
of mutual obligations, and this in turn implied a wan- 
ing faith in Jehovah. 

The Moral Decline. The decline of religious fervor 
was followed by a moral decline. Sorcery, adultery, 
and false swearing were common; the laborer, the 
fatherless, and the widow were oppressed (3. 5; com- 
pare Neh. 5). 

The Faithful Nucleus in the Community. It must 
not be thought, however, that none escaped the 
skepticism and the corruption that followed. The very 
appearance of Malachi shows that there were in the 
community those who retained their hold on God and 
whose faith was made only stronger by the trials 
through which they passed (3. 16). They had the 
same experiences and made the same observations as 
those who became skeptics and evildoers, but "instead 
of laying the blame on Jehovah . . . they recognized 
in Israel itself the cause of the disappointment. It 
was Israel's faithlessness and indifference that now as 
of old hindered the accomplishment of the prophetic 
visions. The one hope of their fulfillment lay in a 
more strenuous and loyal observance on Israel's part 
of the moral conditions of Jehovah's covenant." Out 
of this group of religious zealots arose Malachi, deter- 
mined to arouse, if possible, a new enthusiasm and a new 






THE PROPHET MALACHI 279 

faith in those who were rapidly drifting from Jehovah 
and his law. 

THE MESSAGE OF MALACHI 

The Book of Malachi falls naturally into three 
sections of unequal length, 1 . 6 — 2 . 9 ; 2 . 1 0-1 6 ; 2.1 7 — 
4. 3, with a prologue, 1. 2-5, and an epilogue, 4. 4-6. 

The Love of Jehovah for Israel, 1. 2-5. The 
prologue (1. 2-5) forms the basis of all subsequent 
appeals. The contemporaries of the prophet ques- 
tioned the love of Jehovah, because the bright promises 
of the earlier prophets had remained unfulfilled. 
Malachi meets this criticism by pointing out the fatherly 
love of Jehovah for the Hebrews (2). They need not 
go far to find evidences of the divine love. Jacob 
and Esau were brothers, hence one would naturally 
expect their descendants to be treated alike by God; 
but what contrasts between the fortunes of the two ! — 
Israel, after many ups and downs, restored to its old 
home, there to remain forever; the territory of Edom 
doomed to perpetual desolation. There can be but one 
reason for all this — Jehovah loved Jacob but hated 
Esau (3-5). This love of Jehovah for Israel, the 
prophet thinks, should be the motive and model for 
Israel's attitude toward him. 

Faithlessness of Priests and People, 1. 6-14. The 
first denunciation (1. 6 — 2. 9) is directed principally, 
though not exclusively, against the priests. Through- 
out the entire history of Israel Jehovah showed him- 
self a loving father and kind master; this would seem 
to entitle him to the people's gratitude and reverence, 
but they fail to give him his dues (6), as is clearly 
shown by the fact that they offer to Jehovah gifts 
which a human governor would reject with scorn 



2 8o PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

(7, 8). No wonder that Jehovah refuses to listen to 
their prayers (9). It would be far better to close the 
temple and extinguish the altar fires than to continue 
this sort of service (10). The service rendered to 
Jehovah among the nations is preferable to that of 
the Jews, for it is pure and generous, while that of 
the Jews is corrupt and heartless: the offerings are 
small, the sacrificial animals diseased and worthless, 
and the little they do give they give grudgingly (1 1-13). 
Cursed be every one who dares to insult Jehovah in 
this manner (14). 

Warning Addressed to the Faithless Priests, 2. 1-9. 
If the priests do not heed the warning and ren- 
der unto Jehovah the service acceptable to him 
he will send his curse upon them, that they may 
understand his purpose to maintain the ancient cove- 
nant with Levi (2. 1-4). According to this covenant 
Jehovah promised to Levi life and peace, while Levi 
promised to fear Jehovah. Both parties kept the 
covenant faithfully; Levi served God, and by his faith- 
fulness turned many to righteousness (5, 6). Similar 
conduct is expected of all the priests (7), but how far 
short of the ideal do they come (8) ! Therefore dis- 
grace and contempt will be their portion (9). 

Condemnation of Mixed Marriages and Divorces, 
2. 10-16. In 2. 10-16 the prophet condemns the 
people's faithlessness to the ancient covenant with 
Jehovah as shown in the prevalence of mixed marriages 
and divorces. Jehovah is the father of all Israel, 
which implies that the individual Israelites are brothers 
and sisters, but they have disregarded the obligations 
placed upon them by these relations (10). To prove 
the accusation the prophet calls attention to two wide- 



THE PROPHET MALACHI 281 

spread abuses: (1) mixed marriages, that is, marriages 
between Jews and women belonging to the surround- 
ing heathenish or half -heathenish nations (11, 12)* 
(2) the heartless putting away of Jewish wives by 
their husbands (13-15). Jehovah abominates such 
conduct, therefore they would better desist from it (16). 
Indifference and Skepticism, 2. 17 — 4. 3. In 2. 17 the 
reader is introduced to the skeptics of the postexilic com- 
munity, who had lost faith in Jehovah and his word 
because the sinful prospered while the good suffered. 
From these inequalities they concluded that Jehovah 
was taking no interest in the affairs of the nation, and 
they doubted that he would ever appear in judgment 
to right the wrongs (2.17). To this complaint Jehovah 
replies that he will suddenly appear, preceded by a 
messenger who will prepare his way (3. 1). His coming 
will be terrible to all who have departed from the 
right, for he will come like a refiners fire to burn up 
the dross (2). He will purify the priests that they 
may again offer sacrifice in righteousness (3, 4), and 
he will sweep away from the nation at large every- 
thing that is contrary to his will (5). Since the skeptics 
doubted the interest of Jehovah in the affairs of the 
nation, they saw no reason why they should continue 
to offer sacrifices to him. In 3. 6-12 the prophet 
condemns this neglect. First he asserts that the 
charge expressed in 2. 17 is groundless. Jehovah has 
not changed, but he cannot manifest himself as in 
days gone by, because their attitude toward him has 
undergone a change (6). They cry out for his return 
to them, but he can respond only if they return to 
him (7). When they inquire wherein they are to 
return, he replies, in being honest in the payment of 



282 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

their tithes and offerings (8). If they do this they 
will soon discover that Jehovah still lives and can 
bless them with abundant prosperity (9-12). 

In 3. 13 the prophet returns to the inequalities of 
life. The skeptics complain that the wicked prosper, 
while suffering is the portion of those who fear God 
(13-15). They are informed that their complaint is 
unwarranted, that Jehovah's eye is over all, and 
though at present the lot of the pious may seem hard, 
Jehovah keeps a record of those who are faithful, and 
when he appears in his temple he will make a dis- 
tinction between the pious and the wicked (16-18). 
The wicked will be destroyed root and branch (4. 1), 
while the righteous will be exalted forever (2, 3). In 
this wise, the prophet argues, Jehovah will prove 
himself a God of judgment and of justice. 

Exhortation to Obey the Law of Moses, 4. 4-6. 
The epilogue (4. 4-6) contains an exhortation and a 
promise. The hearers and readers are urged to lay 
to heart the law of Moses, for only thus can they 
hope to escape the terrors of the day of Jehovah (4). 
The promise of 3. 1 is repeated, that a messenger, 
here called Elijah, will come to prepare the way for 
the coming of Jehovah .himself (5). The last verse (6) 
explains wherein the preparation consists: The mes- 
senger will attempt to convert the nation, so that the 
terror of the day of Jehovah may be averted. 

THE TEACHING OF MALACHI 

"Prophecy within the Law." The Book of Malachi 
has been aptly described as "Prophecy within the 
Law." On the one hand, it reaffirms the truths taught 
by the great preexilic prophets, such as the fatherly 



THE PROPHET MALACHI 283 

love and care of Jehovah for Israel, the holiness and 
righteousness of Jehovah, the terrible judgment upon 
the wicked, and the exaltation of the righteous. On 
the other hand, unlike the earlier prophetic books, it 
places great stress upon the law as a disciplinary rule 
of life; its lax performance receives severe condemna- 
tion, and the final exhortation of the book is, "Remem- 
ber the law of Moses, my servant." 

Malachi's High Regard for the Law. In fairness 
to Malachi this second characteristic must not be 
overemphasized to the obscuring of the former. True, 
he shared with the other religious leaders of the post- 
exilic period a high regard for the law, but this is due 
not so much to lower religious conceptions as to the 
fact, which every careful student of Hebrew history 
in the days of Malachi must have noticed, that after 
all prophecy had failed to produce the permanent 
results for which the prophets had toiled so persist- 
ently. Generation after generation they had sought to 
create a pure and holy nation, but after the lapse 
of centuries the people appeared to be no nearer the 
ideal than at the beginning. Consequently the question 
must have arisen in many minds, whether the method 
of the prophets was the one best adapted to the needs 
of the time, whether the people could be trusted to 
apply the principles of the prophetic religion to the 
daily life, or whether it would not be better to lay 
down definite rules and urge the people to observe 
these, and thus avoid the lapses of the past? The last 
question was answered in the affirmative, and the 
legalism of the postexilic period was born. However, 
in the beginning it was permeated by a spirit of in- 
tense moral earnestness; the exaggeration of the letter 



284 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

was a later development. Malachi was a prophet just 
as truly as were Isaiah and Jeremiah, but unlike these 
he emphasized the embodiment of the prophetic spirit 
and the prophetic principles in external law. 

The Fatherhood of Jehovah. Though the principal 
points in Malachi's teaching have already been alluded 
to, a few of them deserve special mention : The father- 
hood of Jehovah. Jehovah has manifested a fatherly 
interest in Israel throughout the entire history of the 
nation (i. 2-5). The prophet makes this fact the basis 
of all his appeals. Because he is the loving father of 
the Jews, he has a right to claim their reverence and 
affection (1. 6) ; because he loves all alike, they should 
show a brotherly love toward one another (2. 10). 
But his love can manifest itself only toward the good 
and pious; the unrighteous must perish. 

The Righteousness of Jehovah. Malachi empha- 
sizes the justice and righteousness of Jehovah as 
strongly as did the stern Amos. A righteous God 
demands of his worshipers a pure and righteous 
service. External forms of worship are an abomina- 
tion to him unless they are prompted by true devotion 
and accompanied by a holy and consistent life (1. 
6 — 2 . 9). He would rather do without sacrifice and 
offerings than be compelled to receive them from those 
who neglect the weightier matters. He desires the 
payment of tithes, but only as the practical expression 
of a loving faith in him. Apparent inequalities in life 
do not militate against the divine righteousness, for 
in due time Jehovah will prove himself a righteous 
judge by rewarding all according to their deeds (3. 

16—4. 3)- 
The Brotherhood of Man. The brotherhood of man 



THE PROPHET MALACHI 285 

is taught in the Book of Malachi not in the broad 
New Testament sense, but only as applying to rela- 
tions within the Jewish community. The individual 
Jews are related to one another as brothers and sisters, 
and this relation should determine their treatment of 
one another. Mixed marriages and divorce receive 
very severe condemnation, because they are sins 
against this principle of brotherhood ; though undoubt- 
edly the prophet was prompted also by the fear that 
these practices would corrupt the religion of Jehovah. 

Jehovah Worship among Other Nations. The sig- 
nificance of 1. 11 has been overestimated. It would, 
indeed, be remarkable to find an Old Testament 
prophet broad-minded enough to teach that the worship 
of heathen nations offered to different deities was in 
reality worship of Jehovah under various forms. 
Though that is not the thought of the passage, the 
recognition that any worship rendered to Jehovah 
among the nations was acceptable to him was a long 
step forward toward the teaching of John 4. 2 iff. 

The Messianic Teaching of Malachi. The Messianic 
teaching of Malachi is very simple. The establishment 
of the kingdom of God will be preceded by the day 
of Jehovah, a day of sifting, on which Jehovah will 
appear to separate the righteous from the wicked, and 
a day of terror, on which he will execute judgment 
upon the wicked (3. 1-5; 3. 16 — 4. 3). After this 
crisis the pious will enter upon a life of permanent 
prosperity and felicity. The Messianic king is not 
mentioned; Jehovah himself will interfere on behalf 
of his people. Malachi introduces the person of a 
messenger, Elijah the prophet, who will be sent to 
prepare the way for the coming of the judge (3. 1). 



CHAPTER XIII 
JOEL 

UNCERTAINTY OF THE DATE OF JOEL 

Dates Proposed. Perhaps no other book in the Old 
Testament has been assigned to so many different 
dates as the Book of Joel. Even during the nineteenth 
century, when investigation is supposed to have pro- 
ceeded on scientific principles, scholars have differed 
regarding its date by a space of more than five cen- 
turies. In other words, the book has been dated as 
early as the reign of Rehoboam, the son of Solomon, 
that is, before 900 B. C, and as late as the fourth 
century B. C. In addition, it has been located in 
every century between these extreme dates. 

External Evidence. The uncertainty as to the date 
of Joel is due to the absence of decisive data upon the 
basis of which definite conclusions may be reached. 
External evidence, the most satisfactory kind of evi- 
dence, is entirely lacking, unless we regard as external 
evidence the position of the book in the collection of 
Minor Prophets. But this is by no means conclusive, 
for it is generally recognized that, while in the main, 
perhaps, intended to be chronological, the arrangement 
of the Minor Prophets cannot be followed implicitly 
when a question of date is under consideration. 

Internal Evidence. It is chiefly internal evidence, 
therefore, that must decide the question. Here be- 
long any indications of the historical situation in 
which the book arose, the theological ideas expressed 

286 



THE PROPHET JOEL 287 

or implied, literary parallels with other Old Testament 
writings whose dates are known, and linguistic and 
stylistic features. This evidence must be examined 
very carefully; but after this is done it will be found 
that the data presented by the book are, with a few 
exceptions, altogether indecisive. The exceptions, 
especially the historical references in 3. 1-5, which 
seem to presuppose the fall of Jerusalem in 586 and 
the subsequent dispersion of the Jews, the constant 
emphasis on the more external elements of religion, 
and some of the linguistic peculiarities, favor a post- 
exilic date. To determine the exact date during this 
period may not be possible, though a date subsequent 
to the final establishment of the law under Nehemiah 
(444-432 B. C), perhaps about 400 B. C, seems the 
most probable. 

THE MESSAGE OF JOEL 

The Prophet Joel. Of the personal history of Joel 
nothing is known beyond what may be gathered from 
the prophecy itself. His message centers around 
Judah and Jerusalem; and the manner in which he 
refers in several places to the land and the city makes 
it probable that his home was in southern Palestine, 
perhaps in Jerusalem. He displays intimate knowledge 
of the temple and its service, of the priests and their 
duties, but he himself was probably not a priest. 

Occasion of JoePs Utterances. The occasion of 
Joel's utterances seems to have been a threefold 
calamity, locusts (1. 4), drought (1. 16-18), and con- 
flagrations (1. 19, 20). But his horizon was not 
limited by this; on the contrary, his chief interest 
centers in a manifestation of Jehovah still in the 
future, yet in. the prophetic conception, near at hand, 



288 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

the day of Jehovah; and throughout the entire book 
this day is kept prominently before the readers. 
Description of the Plague of Locusts, i. 1-20. 

The Book of Joel falls naturally into two parts. In 
the first (1. 1 — 2. 17) judgment receives special em- 
phasis; in the second (2. 18 — 3. 21) the thought of 
restoration and blessing predominates. The first 
section of the first part (1. 1-20) deals mainly with 
the distress that arouses the prophet's emotions. He 
begins by calling attention to the present calamity, 
which is without parallel in the memory of even the 
oldest inhabitants. The whole country is waste and 
desolate (1. 2-4). The awful distress leads him to 
call upon all to lament (5-12), because all luxuries 
are cut off (5-7) ; the worship of Jehovah has suffered 
through the interruption, or threatened interruption, 
of the meal and drink offerings (8-10), and the means 
for the sustenance of life are cut off and destroyed by 
the locusts (11, 12). But the present calamity is only 
the beginning of the great final blow, the judgment of 
the day of Jehovah. Is there, then, no escape? Jeho- 
vah alone can save, but communion with him is at an 
end, or is at least threatened. If, however, he is 
approached rightly he may yet have mercy (13, 14). 
The prophet is so earnest in his appeal because he sees 
looming up in the near future the day of Jehovah as 
destruction from the Almighty (15). In justification 
of his fear the prophet calls attention once more to the 
awful condition of the land, and closes with a petition 
to Jehovah for mercy and deliverance (16-20). 

The Plague of Locusts the Harbinger of the Day 
of Jehovah, 2. 1-17. The second section (2. 1-17) 
presents the thought of chapter 1 from a somewhat 



THE PROPHET JOEL 289 

different viewpoint. The prophet, starting again from 
the present unparalleled calamity, looks upon it chiefly 
as the harbinger of the day of Jehovah, which is near 
at hand (2.1-3). In the succeeding verses he presents 
a vivid word picture of the plague of locusts. The 
appearance is "as the appearance of horses. . . . Like 
the noise of chariots on the tops of the mountains do 
they leap. ... At their presence the peoples are in 
anguish. . . . They run like mighty men; they climb 
the wall like men of war. . . . They leap upon the city ; 
they run upon the wall ; they climb up into the houses ; 
they enter in at the windows like a thief" (4-1 1). 
This scourge introduces the terrible day itself. Though 
near at hand, it may still be averted; and once more 
he summons all to repentance (12-17). 

Restoration of the Divine Favor; Destruction of 
the Nations, Exaltation of the Jews, 2. 18 — 3. 21. 
Though not expressly stated, it is implied that the 
prophet's exhortation was heeded; the solemn assem- 
bly was held, and the people turned to Jehovah in 
penitence, whereupon he altered his purpose (18). In 
verse 19 Jehovah is introduced as replying to the 
petitions of the penitent people. He will remove the 
plague of locusts and restore abundant temporal 
prosperity (20-26). But the temporal blessings will be 
far surpassed by wonderful spiritual gifts, the presence 
of Jehovah in the midst of his people (27) and the 
outpouring of the Divine Spirit upon all flesh (28, 29). 
Although temporarily postponed, the day of Jehovah 
will finally come, inaugurated by wonders in the 
heavens and on the earth. Its terrors, however, will 
not fall upon the penitent Jews (30-32), but upon the 
nations that have cruelly wronged the "heritage of 



2 9 o PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

Jehovah" (3. 1-3). Of the doomed nations Tyre, 
Sidon. and the Philistines are singled out on account 
of special hostility to Judah (4-8). The nations are 
challenged to muster their forces, only to be annihilated 
in the " valley of decision." The day of judgment 
upon the nations will be one of triumph for Israel 
(9-16). The crisis passed, Jerusalem will be holy, and 
the whole land will be blessed with extraordinary 
fertility, while Edom and Egypt will lie waste for- 
ever (17-21). 

THE TEACHING OF JOEL 

The Day of Jehovah. The teaching of Joel centers 
around the day of Jehovah, that is, the great future 
crisis in which Jehovah will manifest his power and 
majesty in the destruction of his enemies and the 
deliverance of those who trust in him. Concerning 
this day he teaches: (1) Its approach is marked by 
great convulsions and extraordinary phenomena in the 
sphere of nature (2. 11, 30; compare also his inter- 
pretation of the plague of locusts). (2) The character 
of the day will depend upon the attitude of heart and 
life toward Jehovah. If the people continue in re- 
bellion, it will be a day of terror (1. 15; 2. 11), but 
if they repent it will be a day of blessing and exalta- 
tion (2. 12-14, 19-29). (3) when the da y finall y 

breaks, those who call upon the name of Jehovah will 
be delivered (2. 31), but the enemies of Israel, and as 
such of Jehovah, will be annihilated (chapter 3). 

The Outpouring of the Divine Spirit. Joel empha- 
sizes the outpouring of the Divine Spirit. Other 
prophets announce that in the era of restoration the 
Spirit of Jehovah will do an important work, but 
nowhere else do we find a promise so comprehensive, 



THE PROPHET JOEL 291 

the fulfillment of which would mean the realization of 
the wish of Moses, "Would that all Jehovah's people 
were prophets, that Jehovah would put his Spirit upon 
them!" (Num. 11. 29.) The day of Pentecost marked 
the beginning of the fulfillment; and since then it has 
been and is being fulfilled with ever-increasing fullness, 
and in a manner far superior to the expectation of 
our prophet. 

JoePs Exclusiveness. Joel seems to have a narrower 
view of Jehovah's redemptive purpose than some of 
the other prophets. Apparently he sees no salvation 
for the nations. Israel is to be saved and glorified, 
the nations are to be judged and destroyed. Even 
the promise concerning the outpouring of the Spirit 
upon all flesh is seen, on closer study, to be limited 
to the descendants of Abraham. The promise is to 
"your sons and your daughters, . . . your old men, . . . 
your young men." 

But it would not be proper to condemn the prophet 
for this seeming exclusiveness. It was this very 
limitation during the generations following the return 
from exile that made possible the existence of the 
religion of Jehovah in unadulterated form. That 
Israel remained Israel in spite of the attempts of the 
Samaritans and other surrounding nations, in spite of 
the influence of the Persians, "in spite of the Greek 
arms and the Greek mind, was due to the legalism of 
Ezra and Nehemiah, and to what we may call the 
narrow enthusiasm of Joel." That a later generation 
failed to see that the crisis was passed, that it was 
time to "go into all the world" and spread the knowl- 
edge of Jehovah to "every creature"; that an illegiti- 
mate exaggeration and a false interpretation of the 



292 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

utterances of men of God, like our prophet, was respon- 
sible for the rejection by the Jews of the Messiah when 
he actually appeared among men, surely cannot be 
made a basis of accusation against our prophet. 

Jehovah's Sovereignty. Joel is silent concerning the 
person of the Messianic king. In the final crisis it is 
Jehovah himself who interferes, both in judging the 
nations and in delivering the faithful Jews. It is he 
who in his own person will rule on Zion: "I am in the 
midst of Israel" (2. 27; compare 3. 17, 21). 

Joel's Attitude toward the Externals of Religion. 
On account of his emphasis of the externals of religion 
(1. 9, 13, 14; 2. 12-17) J oe l has sometimes been accused 
of neglecting entirely the weightier matters. Here, 
as in all things, we must guard against extremes. That 
his attitude toward sacrifice is not that of Amos 5. 2 iff. 
or Isa. 1. 1 iff., may be readily admitted, but that he 
entirely lacked interest in the fulfillment of moral 
requirements is not true. For he promises deliverance 
to the people not on the basis of painstaking observance 
of the forms of religion, but only on the basis of a 
" godly sorrow that worketh repentance for salvation" 
(compare especially 2. 12, 13). 



CHAPTER XIV 

JONAH AND DANIEL 

The Books of Jonah and Daniel are not prophetic 
books in the same sense as the books considered in 
the preceding chapters. The latter is not reckoned 
among the prophetic books in the Jewish canon, and 
the former, though one of the Minor Prophets, is 
called, even in Jewish tradition, a book by itself. How- 
ever, since the English Old Testament places both 
among the prophetic books, they must be considered, 
at least briefly, in a book on Hebrew prophecy intended 
for the student of the English Bible. Both books 
raise numerous questions the discussion of which lies 
outside the scope of this work. Anyone interested 
in these questions — and they are not without impor- 
tance for an adequate appreciation of the books — may 
find a full discussion of the critical questions raised 
by the Book of Jonah in the author's Commentary on 
the Minor Prophets; the Book of Daniel receives 
adequate treatment in C. M. Cobern's Commentary on 
Ezekiel and Daniel (in the Whedon series), and in 
S. R. Driver's Commentary on Daniel (in the Cam- 
bridge Bible series). 

JONAH 

CONTENTS OF THE BOOK OF JONAH 

The Hero of the Book of Jonah. The Book of 
Jonah centers around Jonah, the son of Amittai (i. i). 
A prophet bearing the same name is mentioned in 
2 Kings 14. 25, and since the two names are found 
nowhere else in the Old Testament it is exceedingly 

293 



294 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

probable that the Jonah of 2 Kings 14. 25 and the hero 
of this little book are identical. 

Jonah's Commission, Disobedience, Punishment, 1. 
1- 1 6. The Book of Jonah narrates certain incidents 
connected with Jonah's commission to preach in 
Nineveh. The narrative opens with an account of 
Jonah's commission (1. 1, 2). Unwilling to obey, he 
decided to flee "from the presence of Jehovah"; he 
went to Joppa and embarked for Tarshish in Spain (3). 
Soon a great tempest arose, which threatened to de- 
stroy the ship (4). The terrified sailors attempted to 
save the vessel, but the danger only increased. Mean- 
while Jonah was asleep. Finally he was aroused by 
the captain, who implored him to pray to his God for 
help. He did so, but no relief came (5, 6). Then the 
sailors, convinced that the storm was due to the anger 
of a deity against some one on board, decided to cast 
the lot for the purpose of discovering the guilty one. 
It fell upon Jonah, who then made a confession, and 
urged them to cast him overboard (7-12). At first 
they hesitated, but finally they cast him out, and 
immediately the storm ceased (13-15)- As a result 
the men recognized that the God of Jonah was the 
true God, and they offered sacrifice to him (16). 

Jonah's Prayer and Deliverance, 1. 17—2. 10. 
Jonah did not perish, for a big fish swallowed him, 
in whose belly he remained for three days (1. 17). 
At the end of that period he was cast forth upon the 
dry land (2. 10). While in the fish's belly he offered 
a prayer consisting of thanksgiving for deliverance 
wrought and a promise to remain forever loyal to his 
God, because he alone can save (2. 1-9). 

Jonah's Preaching in Nineveh and its Effects, 



JONAH AND DANIEL 295 

Chapter 3. After Jonah's deliverance from this peril 
Jehovah again commanded him to go to Nineveh; and 
this time the prophet obeyed the call. When he had 
found a suitable place he delivered the message, "Yet 
forty days, and Nineveh shall be overthrown" (3. 1-4). 
The effect of the preaching was immediate; king and 
people gave evidence of sincere repentance ; whereupon 
Jehovah determined to withhold the judgment (5-10). 
Jonah's Complaint and Rebuke by Jehovah, 
Chapter 4. This displeased Jonah, and he complained 
bitterly because Jehovah showed mercy to the Nine- 
vites; and finally he prayed that Jehovah might take 
his life (4. 1-3). Jehovah rebuked him gently, and 
afterward taught him by the miraculous growth and 
destruction of the "gourd" the absurdity of his com- 
plaint and the justice of the divine mercy (4-1 1). 

THE TEACHING OF THE BOOK OF JONAH 

Peculiarity of the Book of Jonah. The contents as 
just outlined show the difference between the Book 
of Jonah and the other books called prophetic by 
the Jews. All the others record chiefly prophetic 
utterances, though sometimes embodying brief narra- 
tives of events ; the Book of Jonah, on the other hand, 
records a prophet's work and experiences, giving little 
space to his utterances. 

Purpose and Aim of the Book. A book of this 
character would seem to find its most natural place 
in the third division of the Jewish canon, among the. 
Writings; so that its present position rather favors 
the conclusion reached by the majority of modern 
scholars upon the basis of a study of numerous facts 
presented by the book itself, that the book — whatever 



296 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

historical material it may embody — is primarily not 
historical but prophetic. In other words, it was not 
written to give information concerning the prophet 
Jonah, but, as the product of a prophetic mind, for 
the purpose of teaching a great prophetic truth. This 
didactic purpose must be kept in mind in any attempt 
to interpret the book and its teaching. 

The Central Truth Taught in the Book. What, 
then, is the chief lesson of the Book of Jonah? Cer- 
tainly it is possible to point out several truths taught 
and emphasized; nevertheless., there is one central truth 
that "runs like a red thread through the whole and at 
last becomes a knot whose unloosing in 4. 10, 11 forms 
the glorious finale." This truth is the universality of 
the divine plan of redemption. Nowhere else in the 
Old Testament is such continued stress laid upon the 
fatherhood of God, embracing in its infinite love the 
whole human race. The Book of Jonah is indeed a 
"missionary book," teaching that God does not wish 
that "any should perish, but that all should come to 
repentance." Some of the postexilic writings of the 
Old Testament indicate that there was growing among 
the Jews a narrow, exclusive tendency, which produced 
the idea that salvation was for the Jews only, an idea 
against which early Christianity had to battle with 
all her might. To counteract this spirit of exclusive- 
ness is the aim of the Book of Jonah; to show that 
the belief that Jehovah would save only the Jews and 
destroy all other nations was an unwarranted assump- 
tion. "The national limits of the old covenant are 
here wondrously broken through; the entire heathen 
world opens as a mission field to the messengers of 
Jehovah. Thus the book, with its wide-hearted out- 



JONAH AND DANIEL 297 

look on God's ways, and the sharp criticism of the 
selfish spirit of the Jewish people, as a didactic work, 
is itself a miracle in the literature of this people." 
No one but a prophet, filled with the Spirit of Jehovah, 
could have written this, the most Christian of all 
Old Testament books. 

Details of Allegorical Interpretation. This great 
lesson is taught in the form of a parable or allegory, 
of which Jonah is the central figure. According to 
one view, which is held by many, Jonah symbolizes 
the nation Israel. Israel had received a divine com- 
mission to make known Jehovah to all the earth (Isa. 
42. 5-9; Gen. 12. 3; compare Jonah 1. 1, 2); but Israel 
was disobedient and failed to carry out the divine 
purpose (Isa. 42. 19-24; compare Jonah 1. 3, 4), and 
in consequence was swallowed up by the "monster" 
(Jer. 51. 34; compare Jonah 1. 17). In exile Israel 
turned to Jehovah (that the exile would have this 
effect is stated again and again in the prophetic writ- 
ings; compare Jonah 2. iff.); then Israel was delivered 
from the " monster" (Jer. 51. 44; Ezra 1. iff.; compare 
Jonah 2. 10). The duration of Israel's judgment is 
represented by Hosea as lasting three days (Hos. 6. 2; 
compare Jonah 1. 17). 

While the exile brought the Israelites, in some 
measure, to their senses, they were not entirely cured. 
Their mission was not revoked ; it remained their duty 
to carry the knowledge of Jehovah to the ends of the 
earth. But Israel remained silent. There were many 
who were thinking of the nations as doomed; they 
were displeased because the threats of the preexilic 
prophets remained unfulfilled. To teach such the wick- 
edness of their attitude is the aim of chapters 3 and 4. 



298 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

This may be the correct view. On the other hand, 
there are those who believe that the author has in 
mind only the unspiritual Israelites of the postexilic 
period, and that the purpose of the book is to convince 
these of the iniquity of their selfish exclusiveness, and 
to give them a more adequate vision of the divine 
purpose. In this case Jonah would represent not the 
whole nation, but only the unspiritual portion of the 
postexilic community. But whatever the difference of 
opinion concerning the interpretation of certain de- 
tails, the chief lesson of the book remains the same, 
and gives to it a unique and sublime place among the 
writings of the Old Testament. 

Date of the Book of Jonah. If the preceding 
paragraphs interpret correctly the teaching of the book, 
its origin during the period after the exile becomes 
very probable. This conclusion is supported by the 
internal evidence presented by the book itself. To 
fix the exact point of time during that period is more 
difficult. However, the character of its teaching makes 
it probable that it was written not earlier than the 
reforms under Ezra and Nehemiah, which were to 
some extent responsible for the rise of the spirit of 
exclusiveness condemned in the book. On the other 
hand, it cannot be later than 200 B. C, when the 
prophetic canon was completed. Hence we may con- 
clude that the book originated some time between 400 

and 250 B. C. 

DANIEL 

THE BOOK OF DANIEL 

Place of the Book of Daniel among the Writings. 

According to the common grouping of the books in 
the English Old Testament the Book of Daniel is the 



JONAH AND DANIEL 299 

last of the socalled Major Prophets. The Jews, how- 
ever, place the book in the third division of their 
canon, among the Writings. If the book was written, 
as is now quite generally thought, during the Maccabean 
troubles, subsequent to 170 B. C, this fact in itself 
would be a sufficient explanation of its position among 
the Writings, for the prophetic canon was undoubtedly- 
completed by 200 B. C. Those who believe that the 
book originated during the period of exile account for 
this position in various ways. Some hold that it is 
due simply to an error of the early Jews ; others, that 
the apocalyptic character of the book prevented it from 
taking rank among the prophets; still others insist 
that at one time it was one of the prophets, but that 
subsequently to the opening of the Christian era the 
learned rabbis, prompted in part by their attitude 
toward Jesus, " degraded Daniel from the prophetic 
rank and put his book into the Hagiographa." 

Chief Characteristics of Jewish Apocalyptic Lit- 
erature. The Book of Daniel belongs to the apoc- 
alyptic literature. Apocalyptic elements are found 
also in other Old Testament writings, notably in 
Ezekiel and Zechariah, but Daniel is the principal 
representative of this kind of literature in the Old 
Testament, and has exercised a very marked influence 
upon subsequent writings both Jewish and Christian. 
The apocalyptic literature may be regarded as the 
latest form of prophetic writing among the Hebrews. 
Like the prophet, the apocalyptic writer seeks to set 
forth the character, will, and purpose of God, as also 
the nature and laws of his kingdom. But there is a vast 
difference between the two in their attitude toward 
their own day and generation. Says R. H. Charles, 



300 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

one of the chief authorities among English-speaking 
scholars on apocalyptic literature: "Prophecy still be- 
lieves that this world is God's world, and that in this 
world his goodness and truth will yet be justified. 
Hence the prophet addresses himself chiefly to the 
present and its concerns, and when he addresses him- 
self to the future, his prophecy springs naturally from 
the present, and the future which he depicts is regarded 
as in organic connection with it. The apocalyptic 
writer, on the other hand, almost wholly despairs of 
the present; his main interests are supramundane." 
As a result the apocalyptic literature dwells more 
especially upon the triumph of the kingdom of God in 
the coming age. Hence its name, "apocalyptic," that 
is, the literature that "makes known what is hidden" 
from the eyes of common men. Closely connected 
with this hope of the ultimate triumph of God are two 
other thoughts, that are made very prominent in 
Jewish apocalyptic writings, namely, (i) the idea of 
a world judgment, which will mark the downfall of 
evil and the exaltation of right, and (2) the hope of a 
resurrection from the dead, so that even those who 
have departed may receive their proper dues. 

Authorship and Date of the Book of Daniel. The 
ancient Jewish opinion and the prevailing Christian 
view until quite recent times was that Daniel, who 
lived in exile during the sixth century B. C, was the 
author of the whole book. The first to attack the 
authorship of Daniel was the Neo-Platonist Porphyry, 
who died in 303 A. D., but he had no followers among 
Christians. After the period of the Reformation ques- 
tions were again raised, and since the last quarter of 
the eighteenth century an ever-increasing number of 



JONAH AND DANIEL 301 

scholars have questioned the authorship of Daniel, 
until it may be said that the old view has been quite 
generally abandoned, even by evangelical scholars. Its 
place has been taken by a variety of views, which, 
however, all agree in this, that the book in its present 
form originated in the days of Antiochus Epiphanes 
(175-163 B. C); in other words, that it is the out- 
growth of the Maccabean troubles, and was intended 
to comfort and inspire the oppressed Jewish believers 
in that age. A discussion of this problem is outside 
the scope of this chapter; besides, lack of space makes 
it impossible, as will be realized when it is seen that 
Professor Keil, for example, after bringing forward the 
evidence in favor of the genuineness of the Book of 
Daniel under six heads, discusses the objections to the 
genuineness under twenty-seven heads. Ken's Intro- 
duction to the Old Testament gives a good idea of 
the arguments in favor of Daniel's authorship; the 
commentaries of Driver and of Cobern, to which 
reference has been made, contain admirable discussions 
of the problem from the modern viewpoint. 

Pseudonymous Authorship a Mark of Apocalyptic 
Literature. If the book is an apocalypse, the absence 
of the name of the author and the ascription to a 
prominent person in Jewish history would be quite 
natural, for pseudonymous authorship is one of the 
characteristic marks of apocalyptic literature, as may 
be seen from the following titles of apocalyptic writ- 
ings, all of which were written subsequent to 200 B. C. : 
Apocalypse of Baruch, Book of Enoch, Ascension of 
Isaiah, Assumption of Moses, Testament of the Twelve 
Patriarchs, Psalms of Solomon. In an apocalypse it 
is customary for the author to place "in the mouth 



3 o2 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

of some ancient worthy a history of events up to the 
author's own time, followed by a description of God's 
judgment on the wicked and deliverance of his people." 

CONTENTS OF THE BOOK OF DANIEL 

The Book of Daniel falls naturally into two parts: 
chapters 1-6, which narrate the history of Daniel, 
and chapters 7-12, which contain an account of the 
visions of Daniel. 

Daniel's Youth and Education, Chapter 1. Chap- 
ter 1 describes Daniel's youth and education. In 
the third year of Jehoiakim, king of Judah, Daniel and 
other Jewish children were carried captive to Baby- 
lonia (1. 1-3). At the command of Nebuchadnezzar he 
and three others were educated for three years in all 
the wisdom of the Chaldeans. During the entire 
period they carefully refrained from eating or drinking 
anything forbidden by their law (4-17). At the end 
of the three years the king found their wisdom and 
understanding ten times greater than that of all the 
magicians and enchanters in his realm. Concerning 
Daniel the specific statement is made that he had 
understanding in all visions and dreams (18-21). 

The Dream of the Image and its Significance, 
Chapter 2. Daniel's powers are soon put to a test. 
In the second year of his reign Nebuchadnezzar 
had a dream which sorely troubled him (2. 1). The 
wise men of Babylon were appealed to, but they 
were unable to recall or interpret the dream. This 
made the king angry, and he ordered all of them to 
be slain (2-13). Daniel intercedes for them (14-16), 
and the secret being revealed to him in a night vision 
(17-24), he recalls to the king his dream: The king 



JONAH AND DANIEL 303 

had seen in his dream a great and terrible image. Its 
head was of fine gold, its breast and arms of silver, 
its belly and thighs of brass, its legs of iron, and its 
feet part of iron and part of clay. While watching 
the image, the king saw a stone that was cut out with- 
out hands smite the feet of the image, which was 
broken to pieces, but the stone became a great moun- 
tain and filled the whole earth (25-35). This image, 
Daniel interprets, represents by its different parts 
successive world powers, beginning with Nebuchad- 
nezzar, while the stone represents the kingdom of God, 
which will destroy all the others and, embracing the 
whole earth in its sway, will abide forever (36-45). 
When Nebuchadnezzar hears the interpretation he 
acknowledges the greatness of the God of the He- 
brews, and in gratitude he exalts Daniel to the position 
of chief governor over all the wise men of Babylon. 
His companions also are greatly honored (46-49). 

Faithfulness of Daniel's Companions and their 
Deliverance from the Fiery Furnace, Chapter 3. 
Chapter 3 records how the faithfulness of Daniel's 
companions was tested : Nebuchadnezzar erects a colos- 
sal image of gold. For its dedication he summons the 
nobles from his whole realm, and issues orders that at 
a given signal all must fall down and worship the 
golden image. Those who fail to do this are threatened 
with death in a fiery furnace (3. 1-7). The king is 
informed that the companions of Daniel did not obey 
his command (8-12), whereupon they are cast into the 
fiery furnace (13-23). To the king's astonishment the 
flames do not harm them, and they are brought forth 
(24-27). The king again acknowledges their God as 
supreme and issues a decree threatening death to any- 



3 04 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

one who might dare to speak anything amiss against 
him. The three Jews receive greater honors than 
before (28-30). 

Nebuchadnezzar's Tree-dream and its Fulfillment, 
Chapter 4. Nebuchadnezzar issues a decree to all 
his subjects, setting forth the wisdom and power 
of the God of the Hebrews (4. 1-3). The king had a 
dream which disturbed him; he related it to his wise 
men, but they could not interpret it (4-7). At last 
Daniel came in, and Nebuchadnezzar related the dream 
to him : He saw in a dream a mighty tree that reached 
to heaven, and whose branches sheltered the birds 
of the heavens and the beasts of the field. Suddenly 
he heard the command to cut down the tree; only 
the stump of the roots is to be left, and its portion 
is to be with the beasts of the field for seven years 
(8-18). Daniel interpreted this dream as follows : The 
tree represents the king in his greatness, but Jehovah 
has decreed to bring him low; his reason will leave 
him for seven years, which time he will spend among 
the beasts of the field, until he has learned to acknowl- 
edge the sway of Jehovah. Afterward he will be 
restored (19-27). All came to pass as Daniel had 
predicted; and now, in gratitude for his recovery, 
Nebuchadnezzar issues the decree (28-37). 

The Feast of Belshazzar and the Handwriting on 
the Wall, Chapter 5. Belshazzar, the king, made 
a great feast for his nobles, during which they drank 
wine from the vessels which formerly belonged to the 
temple of Jehovah (5. 1-4). Suddenly the king sees 
the fingers of a man's hand writing something upon 
the wall ; the wise men are summoned but fail to inter- 
pret it (5-9). At the suggestion of the queen Daniel 



JONAH AND DANIEL 305 

is called (10-12), who reads the words, "Mene, Mene, 
Tekel, Upharsin" (13-25), and interprets them as 
meaning that the kingdom of Belshazzar is about to 
be given to the Medes and Persians (26-28). Daniel 
receives further honors (29), Belshazzar is slain the 
same night (30), and is succeeded by Darius the 
Mede (31). 

Daniel's Fidelity and his Deliverance from the 
Lions' Den, Chapter 6. Darius continues Daniel in 
a position of high honor (6. 1-3). This displeases the 
presidents and satraps of the provinces of Persia, who 
plot against his life (4, 5). They induce Darius to 
issue a decree forbidding any man to ask a petition 
of any god or man except the king for thirty days 
(6-8). Daniel is caught violating the decree and is 
cast into the lions' den (9-17). He is, however, mirac- 
ulously delivered (18-23), an d his accusers are cast to 
the lions (24) ; whereupon Darius issues a decree exalt- 
ing the God of Daniel, and the latter continues to 
prosper (25-28). 

The Vision of the Four Beasts and its Interpre- 
tation, Chapter 7. With 7. 1 begins the second 
division of the Book of Daniel, containing chiefly 
accounts of Daniel's visions and their interpretations. 
The first vision recorded came to him in the first year 
of Belshazzar. He saw four great beasts coming up 
out of the sea: a lion with the wings of an eagle, a 
bear, a leopard with four wings and four heads, and 
a fourth unnamed beast with powerful iron teeth and 
ten horns. Among the latter another horn sprang up, 
before which three of the ten were plucked up (1-8). 
He also beheld a judgment scene in heaven; the "one 
that was ancient of days" sat upon the judgment 



306 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

throne; the proud horn was slain, and the doom of 
the beasts was decreed (9-12); whereupon the ancient 
of days gave dominion over all the world to "one 
like unto a son of man" (13, 14). A heavenly inter- 
preter explains the meaning of the vision to Daniel: 
The four beasts signify four kingdoms, all of which 
are doomed. After the destruction of the fourth "the 
saints of the Most High shall receive the kingdom, and 
possess the kingdom forever and ever" (15-28). 

The Ram and the He-goat, Chapter 8. A second 
vision — the ram and the he-goat — came to Daniel in 
the third year of Belshazzar. He saw a powerful ram 
with two high horns throwing down everything before 
it (8. 1-4), until a he-goat with a notable horn between 
his eyes, coming from the west, smote the ram and 
broke his two horns (5-7). After a time the one horn 
was broken, and its place taken by four others, out 
of one of which came forth a little horn, which grew 
very powerful and stopped even the daily sacrifice and 
destroyed the sanctuary of the "prince of the host." 
He also heard a voice announcing how long the sway 
of the little horn and the desecration of the sanctuary 
would continue (8-14). The angel Gabriel interprets 
the vision to Daniel (15-19): The ram represents the 
Medo-Persian empire (20), the he-goat the kingdom of 
Greece, and the great horn between his eyes the first 
king (21); the four horns represent four kingdoms into 
which the kingdom of Greece is to be divided (22); 
the little horn is a king of fierce countenance, who 
will exalt himself even against the "prince of princes"; 
but in the end he will be brought low (23-27). 

Daniel's Prayer and the Divine Answer, Chapter 
9. In the first year of Darius Daniel understood 



JONAH AND DANIEL 307 

"by the books" that the seventy years of desolation 
foretold by Jeremiah were drawing to a close (9. 1, 2). 
He therefore makes confession of the people's sins and 
implores Jehovah to speedily restore the divine favor 
(3-19). While he prays the angel Gabriel appears and 
explains to him that the seventy years mean really 
seventy weeks of years, before the kingdom of God 
can ultimately triumph (20-24). The seventy weeks 
are divided into three smaller periods, seven weeks 
from the going forth of the command to rebuild Jeru- 
salem to "the anointed one, the prince"; then sixty- 
two weeks during which the holy city will exist. At 
the end of this period the anointed one shall be cut 
off, and "the people of the prince that shall come" 
shall destroy the city and the sanctuary. During one 
half of the remaining week sacrifice and oblation will 
cease, but after that the power of the desolator will 
be broken (25-27). 

The Ultimate Triumph of the Kingdom of God, 
Chapters 10-12. Chapters 10-12 record a vision of 
Daniel in the third year of Cyrus, by the river Tigris. 
At the conclusion of twenty-one days of fasting and 
mourning a heavenly messenger appears to him (10. 
1-12). He tells Daniel that he would have come 
sooner, but "the prince of the kingdom of Persia" 
withstood him. Through the assistance of Michael, 
"one of the chief princes," he has at last arrived, to 
make known to him what will befall his people in the 
latter days (13, 14). When Daniel has recovered from 
his first terror (15-19) the messenger informs him that 
he and Michael, the prince of the Jews, will have to 
fight in the Jews' behalf, first with the prince of Persia, 
then with the prince of Greece (10. 20 — 11. 1). Persia, 



308 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

after the rule of four kings, will be overthrown by a 
powerful king of Greece, whose kingdom will be 
divided after his death (2-4). The alliances and con- 
flicts between the kings of the south (Egypt) and the 
kings of the north (Syria) during the succeeding genera- 
tions are portrayed in verses 5-20. Finally "a con- 
temptible person" will ascend the throne of the northern 
kingdom; he will exalt himself greatly, carry on cruel 
wars against many nations, and oppress even the 
people of the most high God; yet he shall come to his 
end and none shall help him (21-45). The death of 
the oppressor will be followed by the deliverance of 
the Jews, the resurrection of many, and the exaltation 
of the faithful (12. 1-3). The message of the vision 
is to encourage those who live in the time of the end, 
that is, during the final struggles preceding the ulti- 
mate triumph of God and of his saints (4). When 
that will come is explained to Daniel in verses 5-13. 

THE TEACHING OF THE BOOK OF DANIEL 

Design and Purpose of the Book of Daniel. A 

recent conservative writer, who believes that Daniel 
wrote the book, sets forth its design and purpose in 
these words: "It is neither prophetic nor historic. It 
is designed rather to show how God cares for his 
people even when everything seems against them, with 
their temple destroyed, their nation scattered, and 
the severe burdens of slavery resting upon the nation." 
With this statement would agree also those who believe 
that the book in its present form comes from a later 
date. It is seen, therefore, that the essential teaching 
of the book remains unaltered and its permanent value 
unaffected by any special view concerning its date and 



JONAH AND DANIEL 309 

authorship. The testimony of Professor Terry, given 
after a study of the Book of Daniel during a period 
of more than thirty years, is worthy of consideration. 
Speaking of himself in the third person, he says: "He 
has found few portions of the Holy Scriptures more 
profitable for devout study, and he here repeats what 
he has published elsewhere, and uttered time and 
again, that whatever may be the results of scientific 
criticism touching the date and authorship of the 
book, the apocalyptic chapters constitute a most 
original and important body of divine revelation. 
Whether written during the exile or in the time of the 
Maccabees, they contain a picture of the kingdoms of 
the world and their ultimate subjection to the king- 
dom of God, worthy of rank with any prophecies to 
be found in the Hebrew Scriptures. Nowhere else do 
we find before the advent of Christ such a magnificent 
conception of the kingdom of heaven. The issues of 
modern criticisms, however, are not over these facts, 
but over questions of the date of the composition, the 
methods of interpretation, and the literary character 
of the book as one of the ' divers portions' of God's 
old-time revelations. ' ' 

The Ultimate Triumph of the Kingdom of God. 
The principal idea, then, of the book is the ultimate 
triumph of the kingdom of God. "It tells," says 
Beardslee, "in plainer language than had been used 
before, of the subjection of the world to God, and 
indicates clearly the evidence of the divine rule, and 
assures us that the progress of God's kingdom is 
absolutely irresistible and that all things will be 
ultimately brought into submission to God." 

Earlier prophets looked with equal assurance for the 



310 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

establishment of the kingdom of God, when the divine 
will and purpose would be realized in every detail of 
life; and, like these prophets, the author of the Book 
of Daniel expected that the reign of righteousness 
would begin immediately after the great crisis of his 
own day and generation would be over. The descrip- 
tion of the kingdom in the book differs, however, in 
some respects from that of earlier writers, as is quite 
natural in view of the apocalyptic character of the 
whole book. The kingdom of God for which the earlier 
prophets looked was an earthly kingdom, ' ' little more 
than a continuance of the existing state of society, 
only purged by a judgment from sin, and freed from 
trouble." The Book of Daniel marks a transition 
from this conception to the conception of a heavenly 
kingdom of God, which appears even more prominently 
in later apocalyptic and New Testament writings. 

Two other points in the teaching of the book may 
be considered : 

Angels in the Book of Daniel. From the time 
of Zechariah angels become more and more prominent 
in the thought of Judaism. The teaching of the Book 
of Daniel concerning angels marks an advance over 
earlier teaching along three lines: (i) The doctrine of 
guardian or patron angels, determining the destinies 
of separate nations, appears here for the first time in 
definite form. The angels of Persia, Greece, and 
Judah are mentioned in Dan. 10. 13, 20, 21; 12. 1. 
(2) For the first time names are given to angels. The 
guardian angel of the Jews is Michael (10. 13, 21; 12. 1), 
who fights for them against the guardian angels of 
their enemies, and Gabriel appears as a heaven-sent 
interpreter (8. 16; 9. 21). (3) Distinction in rank 



JONAH AND DANIEL 311 

among angels also appears first in Daniel. Michael is 
called "the great prince" (12. 1), and "one of the 
chief princes" (10. 13). The latter expression would 
seem to refer to a group of superior angels, to whom 
at a later time the name archangels is given (compare 
Jude 9). In some of the later Jewish writings four 
such angels are mentioned, in others seven. The seven 
angels that stand before God appear also in Rev. 8. 2. 
The Hope of a Resurrection. Resurrection is the 
other element in the teaching of Daniel demanding 
attention. Dan. 12. 2 reads, "And many of them 
that sleep in the dust of the earth shall awake, some 
to everlasting life, and some to shame and everlasting 
contempt." This passage contains the most definite 
reference to resurrection found in the Old Testament. 
The general Old Testament conception of a life or 
existence after death is rather hazy and, on the whole, 
gloomy and full of despair. The dead are represented 
as gathering in Sheol, where they live a "shadowy, 
half -conscious, joyless existence, not worthy of the 
name of life, where communion with God was at an 
end, and where God's mercies could be neither appre- 
hended nor acknowledged." But here and there rays 
of light appear. Sometimes the hope is expressed that 
God will deliver his saints from death; at other times, 
that they will be raised from the dead. To the latter 
class belongs the passage quoted. But even in this, 
perhaps the latest expression of the hope of a resur- 
rection in the Old Testament, the doctrine of the 
resurrection remains incomplete. The Christian still 
needs the fuller light cast upon the subject by Jesus 
himself. What the passage in Daniel adds to the 
earlier teaching is: (1) the resurrection of the wicked, 



3 i2 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

which is clearly taught here for the first time; (2) 
the doctrine of future rewards and punishments, 
though the nature of these rewards and punishments is 
left indefinite. There are, however, still certain limi- 
tations. In the first place, the context makes it 
doubtful that the author meant to include non-Israel- 
ites in the promise of a resurrection. Throughout the 
book he is concerned with the deliverance and exalta- 
tion of the oppressed Jews; hence it would seem most 
natural to interpret the references in chapter 12 also 
as applying to the Jews. Moreover, the expression 
"many of them that sleep in the dust of the earth 
shall awake" would seem to imply that not even all 
Israelites will be raised from the dead. As is sug- 
gested by several commentators, the writer may have 
in mind only "those individuals who had in an extraor- 
dinary degree helped or hindered the advent of God's 
kingdom, that is, the Jewish martyrs and apostates 
respectively; the great majority of the nation, who 
were of average character, neither overmuch righteous 
nor overmuch wicked, remaining still in Sheol." 

The Prophets a Preparation for the Advent of 
Jesus the Christ. This limitation in the prophetic 
conception is only one of several which the student of 
Hebrew prophecy discovers; and these shortcomings 
are only what we might expect. Even the first great 
apologist of Christianity, the writer of the Epistle to 
the Hebrews, recognizes the incompleteness of the Old 
Testament dispensation, which had to be supplemented 
and perfected by a new and more glorious manifesta- 
tion of God; hence, "God, having of old time spoken 
unto the fathers in the prophets by divers portions 
and in divers manners, hath at the end of these days 



JONAH AND DANIEL 313 

spoken unto us in a Son." Therefore, while the 
prophetic books which we have studied are unques- 
tionably "able to make wise unto salvation through 
faith which is in Christ Jesus," and are "profitable 
for teaching, for reproof, for correction, for instruction 
which is in righteousness: that the man of God may 
be complete, furnished completely unto every good 
work," it must never be forgotten that these writings 
mark a preparatory stage, and that the full revelation 
of God came in and through Jesus the Christ, the 
record of which revelation is found in the New Testa- 
ment writings. 



REVIEW QUESTIONS 

CHAPTER I 
i. What is the Bible? 

2. Explain the etymology of the word "Bible." 

3. How many books are there in the Bible? How many in 

the Old Testament? How many in the New? 

4. Name in order the books of the English Old Testament. 

5. How are these books grouped ? Name the books belonging 

to each group. 

6. State the differences between the English Old Testament 

and the Hebrew Bible, and explain their origin. 

7. How many books are there in the Hebrew Bible? How 

are they grouped? 

8. Mark the three stages in the formation of the Old Testa- 

ment canon. 

9. Explain the phrase "in divers portions." 

10. What is the meaning of "in divers manners"? 

11. Indicate some methods by which God makes himself 

known. 

12. Name four classes of religious workers who during the 

Old Testament period aided God in his attempts to 
reach man. 

13. Describe the activity of the prophets and the origin of the 

prophetic literature. 

14. Describe the activity of the wise men and the origin of the 

wisdom literature. 

15. Describe the origin of the devotional literature. 

16. Describe the activity of the priests and the origin of the 

legal or priestly literature. 

17. Describe the activity of the prophets and priests as his- 

torians, and the origin of the historical literature. 

CHAPTER II 

1. Where is the ultimate basis of prophecy to be found? 

2. State four universal religious beliefs underlying the 

phenomenon of prophecy. 
3 r 4 



REVIEW QUESTIONS 315 

3. Describe the "passive" external method of determining 

the will of the Deity. 

4. Describe some of the efforts put forth for the purpose of 

determining the will of the Deity. 

5. Describe the internal method of divine revelation as 

illustrated, for example, at Delphi. 

6. State three important differences between prophecy in 

Israel and "prophecy" outside of Israel. 

7. What is the meaning of the term "prophet" as used in the 

Old Testament? 

8. State and explain three names given to the prophets by 

their contemporaries. 

9. Discuss the comprehensiveness of the prophetic activity. 

10. When did prophecy originate in Israel? 

11. Describe the prophetic activity of Moses. 

12. What prophets appeared during the period of the Judges '.' 

13. Who are the "sons of the p ophets" 5 

14. Why does Samuel deserve to be called a prophet? 

15. Describe the prophetic activity during the reigns of David 

and Solomon, and in connection with the division of 
the kingdom. 

16. Describe two classes of false prophets. 

17. What danger threatened Jehovah religion during the 

reign of Ahab and Jezebel? 

18. What was the principal result of the activity of Elijah and 

Elisha? 

19. Name, with dates, the eighth century prophets. 

20. Name, with dates, the seventh century prophets. 

21. Name, with dates, the prophets of the exile. 

22. Name, with dates, the prophets of the postexilic period. 
2^. What twofold danger threatened Jehovah religion in the 

eighth century? 

24. What truths did the eighth century prophets emphasize? 

25. Describe briefly the activity and teaching of the seventh 

century prophets. 

26. Describe briefly the activity of the prophets of the 

exile. 

27. Describe briefly the activity and teaching of the postexilic 

prophets. 



3 i6 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

28. State three reasons for the decline and final extinction of 
Hebrew prophecy. 

CHAPTER III 

1. Trace the course of political events in Israel from the 

revolution of Jehu to the accession of Jeroboam II. 

2. Point out the important events in Jeroboam's reign. 

3. Describe the prosperity and luxury in Israel as portrayed 

by Amos. 

4. Describe moral and social conditions in the days of Amos. 

5. What were the religious conditions? 

6. Where was Amos born, and what was his occupation? 

7. How did his occupation prepare him for the prophetic 

office? 

8. What was the attitude of the priest at Beth-el toward 

Amos? 

9. Is there anything known concerning the later life of Amos ? 

10. How is the date of Amos determined? 

11. Indicate the logical arrangement of the Book of Amos. 

12. Give a brief outline of the contents of Amos 1 and 2. 

13. Separate the five discourses contained in Amos 3-6, and 

briefly state the contents of each. 

14. Briefly state the contents of Amos 7-9. 

15. Explain each of the five visions narrated in Amos 7-9. 

16. What aspects of the nature and character of Jehovah were 

emphasized by Amos? 

17. State six truths concerning Israel and its destiny taught 

by Amos. 

18. What are some of the permanent lessons of the Book of 

Amos? 

CHAPTER IV 

1. When did Hosea prophesy ? 

2. Describe political conditions in Israel subsequent to the 

death of Jeroboam II. 

3. Describe moral and religious conditions during the same 

period. 

4. Where was the home of Hosea? 

5. How is the narrative concerning Hosea's marriage to be 

explained? 



REVIEW QUESTIONS 317 

6. What bearing did Hosea's domestic experience have upon 

his prophetic activity ? 

7. Briefly indicate the contents of Hosea 1-3. 

8. Give a general idea of the contents of Hosea 4-14. 

9. What phases of the nature and character of Jehovah does 

Hosea emphasize ? 

10. What does Hosea say concerning Israel, the chosen people 

of Jehovah? 

11. What kind of service does Hosea consider acceptable to 

Jehovah? 

12. What four elements enter into Hosea's teaching concerning 

the restoration of Israel? 

13. State the closing events in the history of the northern 

kingdom. 

CHAPTER V 

1. Describe external conditions — political, industrial, com- 

mercial — in Judah during the reign of Uzziah. 

2. Describe external conditions during the reigns of Jotham, 

Ahaz, and Hezekiah. 

3. Describe moral and social conditions during the same 

period. 

4. What was the attitude of the prophets toward the 

nobles? 

5. Describe religious conditions during the reigns mentioned. 

6. Why may Isaiah be called a king among prophets? 

7. What is known concerning the personal life, the family, 

and the death of Isaiah? 

8. When did Isaiah prophesy? 

9. Give the principal divisions of the Book of Isaiah, and 

briefly indicate the contents of each division. 

10. Indicate the sections of the book that are by many denied 

to Isaiah or are looked upon with suspicion. 

11. Indicate, in chronological order, the different periods to 

which the prophecies of Isaiah may be assigned. 

12. What is the key to Isaiah's activity? 

13. What is Isaiah's conception of the divine holiness? 

14. What does Isaiah teach concerning the divine majesty? 

15. What does Isaiah believe concerning the relation of Jeho- 

vah to man? 



3 i8 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

1 6. Summarize the truths impressed upon Isaiah during his 

inaugural vision. 

17. How does the influence of this vision manifest itself? 

18. Briefly indicate the various interests and activities of 

Isaiah. 

19. What led Isaiah to emphasize the divine majesty? 

20. What did Isaiah teach concerning the service acceptable 

to Jehovah? 

21. Describe the activity of Isaiah as a moral and social 

reformer. 

22. What was the fundamental factor in Isaiah's attitude as a 

statesman? 

23. Describe Isaiah's political activity during the Syro- 

Ephraimitic crisis. 

24. State two reasons underlying Isaiah's opposition to the 

policy of Ahaz. 

25. What was Isaiah s conception of faith? 

26. What were the results of Ahaz's stubbornness? 

27. Describe Isaiah's political activity in 705-701, and point 

out how his attitude then may be harmonized with 
that of 734. 

28. How did later events justify Isaiah's attitude? 

29. What did Isaiah teach concerning the salvation of a 

emnant? 

30. Outline Isaiah's teaching concerning the character of the 

Messianic era. 

31. What does Isaiah say concerning the nature and character 

of the Messianic king? 

32. What does Isaiah say concerning the rule of this 

king? 

33. Why does Isaiah insist so strongly upon the inviolability 

of Zion? 

34. In what respect does Isaiah's activity foreshadow the 

formation of the church? 

CHAPTER VI 

1. Institute a comparison between Isaiah and Micah. 

2. Where was Micah's home? 

3. When did Micah prophesy? 



REVIEW QUESTIONS 319 

4. Describe the arrangement of the separate utterances in the 

Book of Micah. 

5. Briefly indicate the contents of Mic. 1,2. 

6. Briefly indicate the contents of Mic. 3-5. 

7. Briefly indicate the contents of Mic. 6, 7. 

8. What does Micah teach concerning the relation of Jehovah 

to Israel? 

9. Why does Micah give such prominent place to the divine 

judgments? 

10. What does Micah say concerning the Messianic king? 

11. Indicate the significance of the eighth century prophets. 

CHAPTER VII 

1. Outline the history of Judah during the century preceding 

the fall of Jerusalem. 

2. What became of the people subsequently to the capture of 

the city? 

3. Describe the invasion of the Scythians. 

4. When did the kingdom of Assyria come to an end? 

5. Who became the successor of Assyria? 

6. Describe religious conditions in Judah during the reigns 

of Manasseh and Amon, and the early years of 
Josiah's reign. 

7. What event was chiefly responsible for a change in con- 

ditions ? 

8. When did the reforms of Josiah take definite shape? 

9. In what year was Josiah slain? 

10. What effect did the death of Josiah have upon the 

reforms instituted by him? 

11. Describe moral and social conditions at the time Jeremiah 

began his prophetic work. 

12. Give a brief outline of Jeremiah's personal life. 

13. Describe Jeremiah's call to the prophetic office. 

14. How does the temperament of Jeremiah manifest itself 

during his career? 

15. Indicate some of the hardships the prophet had to endure. 

16. Indicate the bright and noble aspects of Jeremiah's char- 

acter. 

17. Describe various methods employed by Jeremiah. 



3 2o PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

1 8. What do we learn from the Book of Jeremiah concerning 

its composition? 

19. Indicate the nine groups of prophecies into which the book 

may be divided. 

20. What is the central theme of Jeremiah's teaching? 

21. What does Jeremiah say concerning Jehovah's interest in 

Israel ? 

22. What does he say concerning Israel's apostasy? 

23. How does he treat the self -righteousness of the people? 

24. Outline Jeremiah's threats of judgment. 

25. State Jeremiah's view concerning the remnant. 

26. What does Jeremiah say concerning a restoration from 

exile? 

27. What does he teach concerning a new Jerusalem? 

28. What is his conception of the ideal king of. the future? 

29. What is his conception of the new covenant? 

30. How did Jeremiah spiritualize religion? 

31. What does he say concerning individual responsibility? 

32. What is his attitude toward the salvation of other nations? 
2,s> What is his attitude toward the externals of religion? 

CHAPTER VIII 

1. ZEPHANIAH 

1. What was the occasion of Zephaniah's prophetic activity? 

2. What accusations does Zephaniah bring against Judahand 

Jerusalem? 

3. Enumerate the other nations condemned by Zephaniah. 

4. What effects, does he say, will the judgment have upon 

Judah and the other nations? 

5. In what points does the teaching of Zephaniah resemble 

that of his predecessors? 

6. What does Zephaniah say concerning the dav of Jehovah? 

7. Does Zephaniah consider it necessary for ihe nations to 

come to Jerusalem to worship Jehovah? 

2. NAHUM 

1. When and under what circumstances did Nahum prophesy? 

2. Where was the home of Nahum? 

3. What is the central theme of Nahum's prophecies? 



REVIEW QUESTIONS 321 

4. Give a summary of Nahum' s description of the destruction 

of Nineveh. 

5. What does Nahum teach concerning the character of 

Jehovah? 

6. Explain Nahum 's silence concerning Judah's sins. 

7. What prompted Nahum to glory in the doom of Nineveh? 

8. State some of the permanent lessons of the Book of Nahum. 

9. State the Messianic teaching of Nahum. 

3. HABAKKUK 

i. How do the utterances of Habakkuk differ from those 
of his predecessors? 

2. Describe moral conditions in Judah at the time of 

Habakkuk. 

3. Describe political conditions. 

4. State the twofold perplexity of Habakkuk and the divine 

solutions. 

5. Upon what forms of wrongdoing are the woes in 2. 6-20 

pronounced? 

6. Briefly indicate the contents of the prayer of Habakkuk. 

7. Why may Habakkuk be called a prophet of faith? 

8. What two truths are emphasized by Habakkuk? 

4. OBADIAH 

1. What is the historical background of the prophecy of 

Obadiah? 

2. What evidence is there to show that Edom was hostile to 

Judah during the closing scenes of Judah's history? 

3. When was the prophecy of Obadiah delivered? 

4. Summarize the message of Obadiah. 

5. What was the twofold purpose of Obadiah? 

6. Summarize the teaching of Obadiah. 

CHAPTER IX 

1. What led to Judah's downfall? 

2. Wherein does the fall of Judah differ from that of Israel? 

3. When did the two deportations take place? 

4. Describe the external conditions of the exiles. 

5. Describe the religious and moral conditions of the exiles. 



322 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

6. What effect did the ministry of Ezekiel have upon the 

exiles ? 

7. What two currents of influence may be seen in Ezekiel's 

character and work? 

8. When did Ezekiel receive the call to the prophetic office? 

9. What two truths impressed themselves upon him in his 

inaugural vision ? 

10. What was Ezekiel's principal work aurmg the years pre- 

ceding the destruction of Jerusalem? 

11. What was his principal task subsequently to that catas- 

trophe? 

12. How did the work of Ezekiel differ from that of his prede- 

cessors? 

13. Describe some of the methods adopted by Ezekiel to make 

his message more impressive. 

14. Indicate the principal divisions of the Book of Ezekiel 

and state the contents of each division. 

15. Describe Ezekiel's inaugural vision. 

16. Name the nations against which Ezekiel prophesied. 

17. Indicate the significance of Ezekiel in the history of the 

Jews. 

18. On what condition might the divine favor be restored 

to Judah? 

19. Why does Ezekiel announce judgments upon the heathen 

nations ? 

20. How will the land be prepared for the reception of the 

returning exiles? 

21. How will the exiles be prepared for the return? 

22. Under what figure does the prophet describe the restora- 

tion? 

23. What does Ezekiel say concerning the Messianic ruler? 

24. What is the supreme blessing promised to the exiles? 

25. Why and for what purpose did Ezekiel formulate the theo- 

cratic constitution in chapters 40-48? 

26. What is Ezekiel's conception of the glory of Jehovah? 

27. What does Ezekiel mean by the statement that Jehovah 

does something ''for his name's sake"? 

28. What does he mean by the statement that Jehovah 

will "sanctify himself"? 



REVIEW QUESTIONS 323 

29. What does Ezekiel teach concerning individual responsi- 

bility? 

30. Wherein does Ezekiel's view of the early history of Israel 

differ from that of his predecessors ? 

31. Explain Ezekiel's high estimate of the externals of 

religion. 

CHAPTER X 

1. Narrate the events leading to the capture of Babylon by 

Cyrus. 

2. Indicate the historical background of Isa. 4off. 

3. What two explanations are suggested of the fact that 

these chapters reflect the Babylonian exile? 

4. What is the date reflected in these chapters ? 

5. Indicate the sections into which these chapters may be 

divided. 

6. What is the principal theme of Isa. 40-48? 

7. What is the principal theme of Isa. 49-55? 

8. Indicate some of the features in chapters 40-48 that are 

omitted in chapters 49-55. 

9. What is the principal theme of Isa. 56-66"' 

10. What is the essential characteristic of Isa. 4off.? 

11. What was to be the mission of the redeemed Israel? 

12. Why was it necessary to emphasize in exile the sole deity 

of Jehovah? 

13. How does the author seek to establish the sole deity of, 

Jehovah ? 

14. Where does the author find evidences of the divine power 

and supremacy? 

15. For what purpose does the author emphasize the omnipo- 

tence of Jehovah? 

16. Indicate some of the ways in which, according to the 

author, the righteousness of Jehovah finds expression. 

17. Why does the author use the title "the Holy One of 

Israel"? 

18. What is Jehovah's plan for the nations of the earth? 

19. How is the redemptive purpose of Jehovah to be carried 

out? 

20. Indicate the author's thought concerning Israel as the 

"servant of Jehovah." 



3 2 4 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

21. State Delitzsch's interpretation of the "servant of Jeho- 

vah" passages. 

22. Who is the " servant of Jehovah" in Isa. 40-53? 

23. In what sense does Isa. 53 find its fulfillment in Jesus? 

24. Describe the glories of the Messianic age as portrayed in 

Isa. 4off. 

25. What does the author conceive to be the service accept- 

able to Jehovah ? 

CHAPTER XI 

1. When did Haggai and Zechariah prophesy? 

2. When did the first return from exile take place? 

3. Why did the building operations on the temple soon 

cease? 

4. What important political events took place in Persia after 

the death of Cyrus? 

5. How did the prophets interpret these events? 

6. Describe religious and moral conditions in Jerusalem at 

the time Haggai and Zechariah prophesied. 

7. What was the task of the two prophets? 

8. Separate the several utterances of Haggai and briefly 

state the purpose of each. 

9. Why did Haggai and Zechariah insist so strongly on the 

rebuilding of the temple? 

10. Give a brief summary of Haggai's teaching. 

11. How does the influence of Haggai's one idea show itself 

in all his teaching? 

12. On what does Zechariah base his opening appeal for 

repentance ? 

13. What was the purpose of Zechariah's visions? 

14. Indicate the eight night visions of Zechariah and briefly 

state the significance of each. 

15. What did the crowning of the high priest signify? 

16. Wherein does Zechariah differ from his predecessors? 

17. What duties are performed by the angels who appear in 

Zech. 1-8? 

18. Compare Zechariah's estimate of the temple with that of 

Haggai. 

19. What elements enter into the Messianic hope of Zechariah? 



REVIEW QUESTIONS 325 

20. What are the essential requirements of Jehovah according 

to Zechariah? 

21. Upon what did the success and well-being of the restored 

exiles depend? 

22. Why are Zech. 9-14 denied to the author of Zech. 1-8? 

23. What is the probable date of these chapters ? 

24. Indicate in a general way the contents of these chapters. 

25. What promises are held out to the distressed Jews? 

26. What will be the destiny of the nations? 

27. What is said concerning the Messianic king? 

28. Briefly state the parable of the good and the foolish 

shepherd, and explain its teaching. 

CHAPTER XII 

1. What is the meaning of the name "Malachi"? 

2. Indicate some of the views as to the use of this name in the 

heading of the Book of Malachi. 

3. Give a brief character sketch of the author of the book. 

4. When did Malachi prophesy? 

5. Outline political events in Western Asia between 516 

and 458 B. C. 

6. Explain the rise of religious indifference and skepticism 

in the Jewish community. 

7. How did this indifference and skepticism manifest itself? 

8. By what line of reasoning did some avoid falling into 

skepticism? 

9. What formed the basis of Malachi's appeals? 

10. Why does Malachi condemn mixed marriages and divorce? 

11. Why may the Book of Malachi be described as "Prophecy 

within the Law"? 

12. Explain Malachi's high regard for the law. 

13. What does Malachi say concerning the relation of Jehovah 

to the Jews? 

14. What led Malachi to emphasize the righteousness of 

Jehovah? 

15. In what sense does Malachi teach the brotherhood of man? 

16. How does Malachi estimate the worship of Jehovah 

among foreign nations? 

17. Outline the Messianic teaching of Malachi. 



326 PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS 

CHAPTER XIII 

i. Indicate some of the dates suggested for the Book of Joel. 

2. What is the reason for this uncertainty as to the date of 

Joel? 

3. What is the most probable date of Joel? 

4. Where did Joel prophesy? 

5. What was the occasion of Joel's prophecy? 

6. Indicate the principal divisions of the Book of Joel and 

briefly state the contents of each division. 

7. What is the day of Jehovah? 

8. What does Joel say concerning the day of Jehovah? 

9. What does Joel teach concerning the outpouring of the 

Divine Spirit? 

10. Explain Joel's spirit of exclusiveness. 

1 1 . What does Joel say concerning the sovereignty of Jehovah ? 

12. What was Joel's attitude toward the externals of religion? 

CHAPTER XIV 

1. JONAH 

1. Who is the hero of the Book of Jonah? 

2. Outline the experiences of Jonah as narrated in the Book 

of Jonah. 

3. How does the Book of Jonah differ from other prophetic 

books ? 

4. What is the purpose and aim of the book? 

5. What is the central truth taught in the book? 

6. Outline in detail the allegorical interpretation of the book. 

7. When was the Book of Jonah written? 

2. DANIEL 

i. To which division of the Hebrew canon does the Book of 
Daniel belong? 

2. Indicate some of the suggestions made to account for this 

position. 

3. What are the chief characteristics of Jewish apocalyptic 

literature ? 

4. When and by whom was the Book of Daniel written 

according to the traditional view? 



REVIEW QUESTIONS 327 

5. When ana under what circumstances was it written accord- 

ing to the modern view? 

6. How do those who accept the later date explain the 

ascription of the book to Daniel? 

7. Narrate Daniel's youth and education. 

8. Describe Nebuchadnezzar's image dream and state its 

significance. 

9. Narrate the events leading to the deliverance of Daniel's 

companions from the fiery furnace. 

10. Describe Nebuchadnezzar's tree dream and its fulfillment. 

11. Narrate the feast of Belshazzar and the events connected 

with it. 

12. Why was Daniel cast into the lions' den? 

13. Describe Daniel's vision of the four beasts and state its 

interpretation. 

14. Describe the vision of the ram and the he-goat and state 

its significance. 

15. What reply did Daniel receive to his prayer for a return 

of the divine favor? 

16. Briefly indicate the contents of the last vision of Daniel. 

17. What is the design and purpose of the Book of Daniel? 

18. Wherein does Daniel's conception of the ultimate triumph 

of the kingdom of God differ from that of earlier 
prophets? 

19. Wherein does the angelology of the Book of Daniel mark an 

advance over earlier teaching? 

20. What is the general Old Testament conception of life after 

death? 

21. What contributions does the Book of Daniel make to the 

doctrine of a resurrection from the dead? 

22. Indicate some limitations in the teaching of the Book of 

Daniel concerning this point. 

23. What is the place of prophecy in the working out of the 

redemptive purpose of God? 



INDEX 



Amos, 35-51; person and life, 
38-42; conditions of age, 35- 
38; message, 42-47; teaching, 

47-5L 
Angels, 262, 310, 311. 
Apocalyptic literature, 299—302. 
Assyria, fall of, 129, 130. 

B 

Bible, definition, 9; etymology 
of word, 9. 

C 

Chaldean empire, rise, 130; su- 
premacy in Judah, 126, 127; 
fall, 222, 223. 



Faith, no, 180, 181. 
False prophets, 27. 

H 

Habakkuk, 1 7 5- 1 8 1 ; peculiar- 
ity, 175; message, 176-179; 
teaching, 1 79-1 81; prophet of 
faith, T79. 

Haggai, 246-255; date and con- 
ditions, 246-249; message, 
25 - 2 53; teaching, 253-255. 

Historical literature, 16, 17. 

Hosea, 52-72; conditions, 52- 
55; marriage, 56; person and 
life, 55-57; message, 57-65; 
teaching, 66-72. 



Daniel, 298-312; literary form, 
298—302; date, 300, 301; con- 
tents of book, 302-308; teach- 
ing, 308-312. 

Dates of literary prophets, 29,30. 

Day of Jehovah, 167, 290. 

Devotional literature, 15, 16. 



Egypt, supremacy in Judah, 
126. 

Elijah and Elisha, 29. 

Exile, 186-189; return from, 
246, 247. 

Ezekiel, 186-221; life and per- 
son, 189-194; message, 194- 
211; teaching, 2 1 1 -2 2 1 ; sig- 
nificance, 211; emphasis of 
externals, 220, 221. 



Isaiah, 73-115; conditions, 73- 
77; person and life, 77-80; 
message, 80-101; vision, 85, 
86, 103, 104; work and 
teaching, 101-115; religious 
teacher, 104-106; social re- 
former, 107, 108; statesman, 
108-112. 

Isaiah, chapters 40-66, 222-245; 
contents, 225-235; historical 
background and date, 223- 
225; teaching, 235-245. 

Israel, the servant of Jehovah, 
229-231, 236, 241-244. 



Jehoiakim, religious reaction, 



3 2 9 



33° 



INDEX 



Jehovah, nature and character, 
48, 49, 66, 67, 123, 173, 236- 
241; fatherhood, 284; glory, 
217, 240, 241; holiness, 101- 
103, 173, 218, 240; love, 67, 
296; majesty, 102, 105, 180, 
237, 238, 270, 292; name, 217; 
righteousness, 49, 66, 239, 
240, 264, 284; sole deity, 236, 

237- 

Jeremiah, 125-162; conditions, 
125-135; life and character, 
135-140; message, 140-154; 
teaching, 154-162. 

Joel, 286-292; date, 286, 287; 
exclusiveness, 291; message, 
287-290; teaching, 290-292. 

Jonah, 293-298; contents of 
book, 294, 295; date, 298; in- 
terpretation, 297, 298; teach- 
ing, 295-297. 

Josiah, reforms of, 132. 



Law, 283. 



M 



Malachi, 272-285; name, 272; 
character, 272, 273; con- 
ditions and date, 273-279; 
message, 279-282; teaching, 
282-285. 

Manasseh, religious reaction, 
130. 

Messianic age, 51, 69-71, 112, 
157-160, 214-217, 244, 245, 

309. 3 IQ - 
Messianic king, 71, 113-115, 124, 

159, 214, 270, 271; Zerub- 

babel, 254, 263. 
Micah, 1 16-124; Isaiah and 

Micah, 116; person and life, 



116-118; message, 118-123; 
teaching, 123, 124. 
Moses, the first prophet, 25. 

N 
Nahum, 168-174; life and per- 
son, 168-170; message, 170- 
172; teaching, 173, 174. 



Obadiah, 181-185; message, 184; 
purpose, 185; teaching, 185. 

Old Testament, canon, 11; con- 
tents, io, 11; differences be- 
tween English and Hebrew, 
10; various kinds of litera- 
ture, 14-17. 



Priestly literature, 16. 

Prophecy, basis and origin, 18, 
19; primitive methods, 19-22; 
among the Hebrews, begin- 
ning, 25; history, 25-30; pe- 
culiarities, 22. 

Prophet, etymology of word, 22 ; 
titles, 23; twofold activity, 
24; dates, 29, 30; survey of 
teaching and activity, 30-33; 
false, 27; prophets and Jesus, 
33, 34, 312, 313. 

Prophetic literature, 14. 

R 

Regeneration, 214. 
Remnant, 112, 158. 
Repentance, 70, 212. 
Responsibility, individual, 161, 

162, 219. 
Resurrection, 311, 312. 
Revelation, methods of, 12, 13. 



INDEX 



33* 



Samuel, 26. 

Scythians, 129. 

Servant of Jehovah, 229-231, 

236, 241-244. 
Skepticism, 248, 276, 281, 282. 
Sons of prophets, 26. 
Spirit, outpouring of, 290, 291. 
Spirituality of religion, 160. 



Temple, unique place of, 253- 
255, 262, 263. 



W 

Wisdom literature, 14, 15, 



Zechariah, 246-271; date and 
conditions, 246-249; message, 
255-261, 265-269; teaching, 
261—265, 269-271. 

Zephaniah, 163-168; life and 
person, 163, 164; message, 
164-166; teaching, 166- 
168. 



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